Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Pediatric Neurotoxicology pp 91–105Cite as

Neurodevelopmental Considerations with Antiepileptic Drug Use During Pregnancy

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Specialty Topics in Pediatric Neuropsychology ((STPN))

Abstract

Antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are commonly prescribed for both neurologic and psychiatric indications throughout the life span. However, taking AEDs during pregnancy is associated with potential risks since in utero AED exposure may incur increased risks of major congenital malformations and negative cognitive or behavioral effects. Cognitive and behavioral risks do not appear uniform across all medications. For the AEDs that have been adequately studied, fetal valproate (VPA) exposure is associated with the greatest risks including decreased cognition and risk of autism spectrum disorder, a fact that has been recognized by the US Food and Drug Administration. Phenobarbital also has risk based on limited data. In utero exposure to other AEDs including carbamazepine, lamotrigine, levetiracetam, or phenytoin appear to have less cognitive and behavioral risks than VPA, although it is unlikely that these medications are risk-free. Little or no information exists on newer medications. Women with epilepsy of child bearing potential should take folate as a supplement. Since AED exposure from breast milk appears low, there is no reason to discourage mothers from breast feeding their children.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   49.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   64.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   89.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adab, N., Jacoby, A., Smith, D., & Chadwick, D. (2001). Additional educational needs in children born to mothers with epilepsy. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 70, 15–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adab, N., Kini, U., Vinten, J., Ayres, J., Baker, G., Clayton-Smith, J., … Chadwick, D. W. (2004). The longer term outcome of children born to mothers with epilepsy. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 75(11), 1575–1583.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, J., Vorhees, C. V., & Middaugh, L. D. (1990). Developmental neurotoxicity of anticonvulsants: human and animal evidence on phenytoin. Neurotoxicology & Teratology, 12(3), 203–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aguglia, U., Barboni, G., Battino, D., Cavazzuti, G. B., Citernesi, A., Corosu, R., … Verrotti, A. (2009). Italian consensus conference on epilepsy and pregnancy, labor and puerperium. Epilepsia, 50 Suppl 1, 7–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, G. A., Bromley, R. L., Briggs, M., Cheyne, C. P., Cohen, M. J., Garcia-Finana, M., … Clayton-Smith, J. (2015). IQ at 6 years after in utero exposure to antiepileptic drugs: A controlled cohort study. Neurology, 84(4), 382–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banach, R., Boskovic, R., Einarson, T., & Koren, G. (2010). Long-term developmental outcome of children of women with epilepsy, unexposed or exposed prenatally to antiepileptic drugs: A meta-analysis of cohort studies. Drug Safety, 33(1), 73–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blencowe, H., Cousens, S., Modell, B., & Lawn, J. (2010). Folic acid to reduce neonatal mortality from neural tube disorders. International Journal of Epidemiology, 39(Suppl 1), i110–i121.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bobo, W. V., Davis, R. L., Toh, S., Li, D. K., Andrade, S. E., Cheetham, T. C., … Cooper, W. O. (2012). Trends in the use of antiepileptic drugs among pregnant women in the US, 2001–2007: A medication exposure in pregnancy risk evaluation program study. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 26(6), 578–588.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bromley, R. L., Mawer, G. E., Briggs, M., Cheyne, C., Clayton-Smith, J., Garcia-Finana, M., … Baker, G. A. (2013). The prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders in children prenatally exposed to antiepileptic drugs. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 84(6), 637–643.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bromley, R. L., Mawer, G., Love, J., Kelly, J., Purdy, L., McEwan, L., … Baker, G. A. (2010). Early cognitive development in children born to women with epilepsy: a prospective report. Epilepsia, 51(10), 2058–2065.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, E., Kennedy, F., Russell, A., Smithson, W. H., Parsons, L., Morrison, P. J., … Morrow, J. (2014). Malformation risks of antiepileptic drug monotherapies in pregnancy: updated results from the UK and Ireland Epilepsy and Pregnancy Registers. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 85(9), 1029–1034.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cantwell, R., Clutton-Brock, T., Cooper, G., Dawson, A., Drife, J., Garrod, D., … Springett, A. (2011). Saving mothers’ lives: Reviewing maternal deaths to make motherhood safer: 2006-2008. The eighth report of the confidential enquiries into maternal deaths in the United Kingdom. BJOG, 118 Suppl 1, 1–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chatzi, L., Papadopoulou, E., Koutra, K., Roumeliotaki, T., Georgiou, V., Stratakis, N., … Kogevinas, M. (2012). Effect of high doses of folic acid supplementation in early pregnancy on child neurodevelopment at 18 months of age: the mother-child cohort ‘Rhea’ study in Crete, Greece. Public Health Nutrition, 15(9), 1728–1736.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, J., Gronborg, T. K., Sorensen, M. J., Schendel, D., Parner, E. T., Pedersen, L. H., & Vestergaard, M. (2013). Prenatal valproate exposure and risk of autism spectrum disorders and childhood autism. JAMA, 309(16), 1696–1703.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christianson, A. L., Chesler, N., & Kromberg, J. G. (1994). Fetal valproate syndrome: Clinical and neuro-developmental features in two sibling pairs. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 36(4), 361–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, M. J., Meador, K. J., Browning, N., Baker, G. A., Clayton-Smith, J., Kalayjian, L. A., … Loring, D. W. (2011). Fetal antiepileptic drug exposure: motor, adaptive, and emotional/behavioral functioning at age 3 years. Epilepsy & Behavior, 22(2), 240–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, M. J., Meador, K. J., Browning, N., May, R., Baker, G. A., Clayton-Smith, J., … Loring, D. W. (2013). Fetal antiepileptic drug exposure: Adaptive and emotional/behavioral functioning at age 6 years. Epilepsy Behav, 29(2), 308–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, C., Stewart, M., Stevenson, M., Morrow, J., & Nelson, J. (2011). Neurodevelopment of children exposed in utero to lamotrigine, sodium valproate and carbamazepine. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 96(7), 643–647.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, A. R., Pack, A. M., Kritzer, J., Yoon, A., & Camus, A. (2008). Reproductive history, sexual behavior and use of contraception in women with epilepsy. Contraception, 77(6), 405–409.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dean, S., Colantonio, A., Ratcliff, G., & Chase, S. (2000). Clients’ perspectives on problems many years after traumatic brain injury. Psychological Reports, 86(2), 653–658.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dean, J. C., Hailey, H., Moore, S. J., Lloyd, D. J., Turnpenny, P. D., & Little, J. (2002). Long term health and neurodevelopment in children exposed to antiepileptic drugs before birth. Journal of Medical Genetics, 39(4), 251–259.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dessens, A. B., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Mellenbergh, G. J., Koppe, J. G., van De Poll, N. E., & Boer, K. (2000). Association of prenatal phenobarbital and phenytoin exposure with small head size at birth and with learning problems. Acta Paediatrica, 89(5), 533–541.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edey, S., Moran, N., & Nashef, L. (2014). SUDEP and epilepsy-related mortality in pregnancy. Epilepsia, 55(7), e72–e74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson, K., Viinikainen, K., Monkkonen, A., Aikia, M., Nieminen, P., Heinonen, S., & Kalviainen, R. (2005). Children exposed to valproate in utero—population based evaluation of risks and confounding factors for long-term neurocognitive development. Epilepsy Research, 65(3), 189–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finnell, R. H., Shields, H. E., Taylor, S. M., & Chernoff, G. F. (1987). Strain differences in phenobarbital-induced teratogenesis in mice. Teratology, 35(2), 177–185.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Forcelli, P. A., Janssen, M. J., Vicini, S., & Gale, K. (2012). Neonatal exposure to antiepileptic drugs disrupts striatal synaptic development. Annals of Neurology, 72(3), 363–372.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gaffield, M. E., Culwell, K. R., & Lee, C. R. (2011). The use of hormonal contraception among women taking anticonvulsant therapy. Contraception, 83(1), 16–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gaily, E., Kantola-Sorsa, E., Hiilesmaa, V., Isoaho, M., Matila, R., Kotila, M., … Granstrom, M. L. (2004). Normal intelligence in children with prenatal exposure to carbamazepine. Neurology, 62(1), 28–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaily, E., Kantola-Sorsa, E., & Granstrom, M. L. (1988). Intelligence of children of epileptic mothers. Journal of Pediatrics, 113(4), 677–684.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gedzelman, E. R., & Meador, K. J. (2012). Neurological and psychiatric sequelae of developmental exposure to antiepileptic drugs. Frontiers in Neurology, 3, 182.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Harden, C. L. (2014). Pregnancy and epilepsy. Continuum (Minneap, MN), 20(1 Neurology of Pregnancy), 60–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harden, C. L., Hopp, J., Ting, T. Y., Pennell, P. B., French, J. A., Hauser, W. A., … Le Guen, C. (2009). Practice parameter update: management issues for women with epilepsy—focus on pregnancy (an evidence-based review): obstetrical complications and change in seizure frequency: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee and Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and American Epilepsy Society. Neurology, 73(2), 126–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heikkila, K., Kelly, Y., Renfrew, M. J., Sacker, A., & Quigley, M. A. (2014). Breastfeeding and educational achievement at age 5. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 10(1), 92–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hernandez-Diaz, S., Smith, C. R., Shen, A., Mittendorf, R., Hauser, W. A., Yerby, M., & Holmes, L. B. (2012). Comparative safety of antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy. Neurology, 78(21), 1692–1699.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, D. S., Wlodarczyk, B. J., Palacios, A. M., & Finnell, R. H. (2010). Teratogenic effects of antiepileptic drugs. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 10(6), 943–959.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ip, S., Chung, M., Raman, G., Trikalinos, T. A., & Lau, J. (2009). A summary of the agency for healthcare research and quality’s evidence report on breastfeeding in developed countries. Breastfeeding Medicine, 4(Suppl 1), S17–S30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaaja, E., Kaaja, R., & Hiilesmaa, V. (2003). Major malformations in offspring of women with epilepsy. Neurology, 60(4), 575–579.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kjaer, D., Horvath-Puho, E., Christensen, J., Vestergaard, M., Czeizel, A. E., Sorensen, H. T., & Olsen, J. (2008). Antiepileptic drug use, folic acid supplementation, and congenital abnormalities: A population-based case-control study. BJOG, 115(1), 98–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koch, S., Titze, K., Zimmermann, R. B., Schroder, M., Lehmkuhl, U., & Rauh, H. (1999). Long-term neuropsychological consequences of maternal epilepsy and anticonvulsant treatment during pregnancy for school-age children and adolescents. Epilepsia, 40(9), 1237–1243.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, M. S., Aboud, F., Mironova, E., Vanilovich, I., Platt, R. W., Matush, L., … Shapiro, S. (2008). Breastfeeding and child cognitive development: new evidence from a large randomized trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65(5), 578–584.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loring, D. W., Meador, K. J., & Thompson, W. O. (1994). Neurodevelopment after in utero exposure to phenytoin and carbamazepine. JAMA, 272(11), 850–851.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Margulis, A. V., Mitchell, A. A., Gilboa, S. M., Werler, M. M., Mittleman, M. A., Glynn, R. J., & Hernandez-Diaz, S. (2012). Use of topiramate in pregnancy and risk of oral clefts. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 207(5), 405.e401–405.e407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mawer, G., Clayton-Smith, J., Coyle, H., & Kini, U. (2002). Outcome of pregnancy in women attending an outpatient epilepsy clinic: Adverse features associated with higher doses of sodium valproate. Seizure, 11(8), 512–518.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mawhinney, E., Craig, J., Morrow, J., Russell, A., Smithson, W. H., Parsons, L., … Hunt, S. J. (2013). Levetiracetam in pregnancy: results from the UK and Ireland epilepsy and pregnancy registers. Neurology, 80(4), 400–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meador, K.J., Baker, G.A., Browning, N., Clayton-Smith, J, Combs-Cantrell, D.T., Cohen, M., … Loring, D.W. (2009). Cognitive function at 3 years of age after fetal exposure to antiepileptic drugs. New England Journal of Medicine, 360(16), 1597–1605.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meador, K. J., Baker, G. A., Browning, N., Cohen, M. J., Bromley, R. L., Clayton-Smith, J., … Loring, D. W. (2014). Breastfeeding in children of women taking antiepileptic drugs: Cognitive outcomes at age 6 years. JAMA Pediatrics, 168(8), 729–736.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meador, K. J., Baker, G. A., Browning, N., Cohen, M J., Bromley, R. L., Clayton-Smith, J. , … Loring, D. W. (2013). Fetal antiepileptic drug exposure and cognitive outcomes at age 6 years (NEAD study): A prospective observational study. The Lancet Neurology, 12(3), 244–252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meador, K., Reynolds, M. W., Crean, S., Fahrbach, K., & Probst, C. (2008). Pregnancy outcomes in women with epilepsy: A systematic review and meta-analysis of published pregnancy registries and cohorts. Epilepsy Research, 81(1), 1–13.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mines, D., Tennis, P., Curkendall, S. M., Li, D. K., Peterson, C., Andrews, E. B., … Chan, K. A. (2014). Topiramate use in pregnancy and the birth prevalence of oral clefts. Pharmacoepidemiology & Drug Saftey, 23(10), 1017–1025.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadebaum, C., Anderson, V., Vajda, F., Reutens, D., & Wood, A. (2012). Neurobehavioral consequences of prenatal antiepileptic drug exposure. Developmental Neuropsychology, 37(1), 1–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ogura, H., Yasuda, M., Nakamura, S., Yamashita, H., Mikoshiba, K., & Ohmori, H. (2002). Neurotoxic damage of granule cells in the dentate gyrus and the cerebellum and cognitive deficit following neonatal administration of phenytoin in mice. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 61(11), 956–967.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olney, J. W., Wozniak, D. F., Jevtovic-Todorovic, V., Farber, N. B., Bittigau, P., & Ikonomidou, C. (2002). Drug-induced apoptotic neurodegeneration in the developing brain. Brain Pathology, 12(4), 488–498.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ornoy, A., & Cohen, E. (1996). Outcome of children born to epileptic mothers treated with carbamazepine during pregnancy. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 75(6), 517–520.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Quigley, M. A., Hockley, C., Carson, C., Kelly, Y., Renfrew, M. J., & Sacker, A. (2012). Breastfeeding is associated with improved child cognitive development: A population-based cohort study. Journal of Pediatrics, 160(1), 25–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rasalam, A. D., Hailey, H., Williams, J. H., Moore, S. J., Turnpenny, P. D., Lloyd, D. J., & Dean, J. C. (2005). Characteristics of fetal anticonvulsant syndrome associated autistic disorder. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 47(8), 551–555.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reinisch, J. M., Sanders, S. A., Mortensen, E. L., & Rubin, D. B. (1995). In utero exposure to phenobarbital and intelligence deficits in adult men. JAMA, 274(19), 1518–1525.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rihtman, T., Parush, S., & Ornoy, A. (2012). Preliminary findings of the developmental effects of in utero exposure to topiramate. Reproductive Toxicology, 34(3), 308–311.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rihtman, T., Parush, S., & Ornoy, A. (2013). Developmental outcomes at preschool age after fetal exposure to valproic acid and lamotrigine: Cognitive, motor, sensory and behavioral function. Reproductive Toxicology, 41, 115–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, C., Magnus, P., Schjolberg, S., Stoltenberg, C., Suren, P., McKeague, I. W., … Susser, E. (2011). Folic acid supplements in pregnancy and severe language delay in children. JAMA, 306(14), 1566–1573.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, R. J., Tancredi, D. J., Ozonoff, S., Hansen, R. L., Hartiala, J., Allayee, H., … Hertz-Picciotto, I. (2012). Maternal periconceptional folic acid intake and risk of autism spectrum disorders and developmental delay in the CHARGE (CHildhood Autism Risks from Genetics and Environment) case-control study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 96(1), 80–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scolnik, D., Nulman, I., Rovet, J., Gladstone, D., Czuchta, D., Gardner, H. A., … Einarson, T. (1994). Neurodevelopment of children exposed in utero to phenytoin and carbamazepine monotherapy. JAMA, 271(10), 767–770.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shallcross, R., Bromley, R. L., Cheyne, C. P., Garcia-Finana, M., Irwin, B., Morrow, J., & Baker, G. A. (2014). In utero exposure to levetiracetam vs valproate: Development and language at 3 years of age. Neurology, 82(3), 213–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shallcross, R., Bromley, R. L., Irwin, B., Bonnett, L. J., Morrow, J., & Baker, G. A. (2011). Child development following in utero exposure: Levetiracetam vs sodium valproate. Neurology, 76(4), 383–389.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Suren, P., Roth, C., Bresnahan, M., Haugen, M., Hornig, M., Hirtz, D., … Stoltenberg, C. (2013). Association between maternal use of folic acid supplements and risk of autism spectrum disorders in children. JAMA, 309(6), 570–577.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, S. V., Sukumaran, S., Lukose, N., George, A., & Sarma, P. S. (2007). Intellectual and language functions in children of mothers with epilepsy. Epilepsia, 48(12), 2234–2240.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tomson, T., & Battino, D. (2012). Teratogenic effects of antiepileptic drugs. The Lancet Neurology, 11(9), 803–813.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turski, C. A., & Ikonomidou, C. (2012). Neuropathological sequelae of developmental exposure to antiepileptic and anesthetic drugs. Frontiers in Neurology, 3, 120.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vajda, F. J., O'Brien, T. J., Lander, C. M., Graham, J., & Eadie, M. J. (2014). The teratogenicity of the newer antiepileptic drugs: An update. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 130(4), 234–238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Pol, M. C., Hadders-Algra, M., Huisjes, H. J., & Touwen, B. C. (1991). Antiepileptic medication in pregnancy: Late effects on the children's central nervous system development. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 164(1 Pt 1), 121–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Veiby, G., Daltveit, A. K., Schjolberg, S., Stoltenberg, C., Oyen, A. S., Vollset, S. E., … Gilhus, N. E. (2013). Exposure to antiepileptic drugs in utero and child development: a prospective population-based study. Epilepsia, 54(8), 1462–1472.

    Google Scholar 

  • Viguera, A. C., Whitfield, T., Baldessarini, R. J., Newport, D. J., Stowe, Z., Reminick, A., … Cohen, L. S. (2007). Risk of recurrence in women with bipolar disorder during pregnancy: prospective study of mood stabilizer discontinuation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(12), 1817–1824.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vinten, J., Adab, N., Kini, U., Gorry, J., Gregg, J., & Baker, G. A. (2005). Neuropsychological effects of exposure to anticonvulsant medication in utero. Neurology, 64(6), 949–954.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vinten, J., Bromley, R. L., Taylor, J., Adab, N., Kini, U., & Baker, G. A. (2009). The behavioral consequences of exposure to antiepileptic drugs in utero. Epilepsy & Behavior, 14(1), 197–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wide, K., Winbladh, B., Tomson, T., Sars-Zimmer, K., & Berggren, E. (2000). Psychomotor development and minor anomalies in children exposed to antiepileptic drugs in utero: A prospective population-based study. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 42(2), 87–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, P. G., & Hersh, J. H. (1997). A male with fetal valproate syndrome and autism. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 39(9), 632–634.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, G., King, J., Cunningham, M., Stephan, M., Kerr, B., & Hersh, J. H. (2001). Fetal valproate syndrome and autism: Additional evidence of an association. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 43(3), 202–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, R. D., Davies, G., Desilets, V., Reid, G. J., Summers, A., Wyatt, P., & Young, D. (2003). The use of folic acid for the prevention of neural tube defects and other congenital anomalies. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada, 25(11), 959–973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, L. L., Zeng, L. N., & Li, Y. P. (2011). Side effects of phenobarbital in epilepsy: A systematic review. Epileptic Disorders, 13(4), 349–365.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departments of Neurology and Pediatrics, Emory University, 12 Executive Park, Room 285, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA

    David W. Loring Ph.D., A.B.P.P.

  2. Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 675 N. St. Clair, Galter 20-100, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA

    Elizabeth E. Gerard M.D.

  3. Department of Neurology & Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, 300 Pasteur Drive (Room A343), Stanford, CA, 94305, USA

    Kimford J. Meador M.D.

Authors
  1. David W. Loring Ph.D., A.B.P.P.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Elizabeth E. Gerard M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kimford J. Meador M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David W. Loring Ph.D., A.B.P.P. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Educational Psychology and Institute of Neuroscience, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA

    Cynthia A. Riccio

  2. Department of Educational Psychology, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA

    Jeremy R. Sullivan

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Loring, D.W., Gerard, E.E., Meador, K.J. (2016). Neurodevelopmental Considerations with Antiepileptic Drug Use During Pregnancy. In: Riccio, C., Sullivan, J. (eds) Pediatric Neurotoxicology. Specialty Topics in Pediatric Neuropsychology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32358-9_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation