Abstract
Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2) is a transcription factor that controls the expression of predominant antioxidant system in the central nervous system (CNS). Under normal conditions, Nrf2 is sequestered by Keap1 and degenerated by the ubiquitin system. Oxidative stress initiates Nrf2 nuclear translocation, leading to expression of antioxidant molecules and enzymes. In stroke, oxidative stress is one of the major causes of neuronal death, and Nrf2 pathway is activated in both in vitro and in vivo ischemic models. In addition to mediate self-defense in neurons, Nrf2 also actively regulates the expression of cytoprotective enzymes in other cell types within the neurovascular unit (NVU), including astrocytes and endothelial cells, and thus supports neuronal function and survival through cell–cell interaction. The roles of microglias in stroke are still controversial, but close to be clarified. In this chapter, we will briefly introduce Nrf2 pathway, followed by its key roles of nonneuronal Nrf2 in limiting ischemic injury and emerging roles in brain tissue repair after stroke.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Motohashi H, O’Connor T, Katsuoka F, et al. Integration and diversity of the regulatory network composed of Maf and CNC families of transcription factors. Gene. 2002;294(1–2):1–12.
Jain AK, Jaiswal AK. GSK-3beta acts upstream of Fyn kinase in regulation of nuclear export and degradation of NF-E2 related factor 2. J Biol Chem. 2007;282(22):16502–10.
Itoh K, Chiba T, Takahashi S, et al. An Nrf2/small Maf heterodimer mediates the induction of phase II detoxifying enzyme genes through antioxidant response elements. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1997;236(2):313–22.
Baird L, Dinkova-Kostova AT. The cytoprotective role of the Keap1–Nrf2 pathway. Arch Toxicol. 2011;85(4):241–72.
Motohashi H, Yamamoto M. Nrf2–Keap1 defines a physiologically important stress response mechanism. Trends Mol Med. 2004;10(11):549–57.
Yamamoto T, Suzuki T, Kobayashi A, et al. Physiological significance of reactive cysteine residues of Keap1 in determining Nrf2 activity. Mol Cell Biol. 2008;28(8):2758–70. Pubmed Central PMCID: 2293100.
McMahon M, Thomas N, Itoh K, et al. Dimerization of substrate adaptors can facilitate cullin-mediated ubiquitylation of proteins by a “tethering” mechanism: a two-site interaction model for the Nrf2-Keap1 complex. J Biol Chem. 2006;281(34):24756–68.
Jain AK, Bloom DA, Jaiswal AK. Nuclear import and export signals in control of Nrf2. J Biol Chem. 2005;280(32):29158–68.
Li W, Kong AN. Molecular mechanisms of Nrf2-mediated antioxidant response. Mol Carcinog. 2009;48(2):91–104. Pubmed Central PMCID: 2631094.
Huang HC, Nguyen T, Pickett CB. Phosphorylation of Nrf2 at Ser-40 by protein kinase C regulates antioxidant response element-mediated transcription. J Biol Chem. 2002;277(45):42769–74. PubMed PMID: WOS:000179081200046. English.
Jain AK, Jaiswal AK. Phosphorylation of tyrosine 568 controls nuclear export of Nrf2. J Biol Chem. 2006;281(17):12132–42.
Rada P, Rojo AI, Chowdhry S, et al. SCF/{beta}-TrCP promotes glycogen synthase kinase 3-dependent degradation of the Nrf2 transcription factor in a Keap1-independent manner. Mol Cell Biol. 2011;31(6):1121–33. Pubmed Central PMCID: 3067901.
Itoh K, Igarashi K, Hayashi N, et al. Cloning and characterization of a novel erythroid cell-derived CNC family transcription factor heterodimerizing with the small Maf family proteins. Mol Cell Biol. 1995;15(8):4184–93. Pubmed Central PMCID: 230657.
Rushmore TH, Morton MR, Pickett CB. The antioxidant responsive element. Activation by oxidative stress and identification of the DNA consensus sequence required for functional activity. J Biol Chem. 1991;266(18):11632–9.
Nguyen T, Sherratt PJ, Pickett CB. Regulatory mechanisms controlling gene expression mediated by the antioxidant response element. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2003;43:233–60.
Rada P, Rojo AI, Evrard-Todeschi N, et al. Structural and functional characterization of Nrf2 degradation by the glycogen synthase kinase 3/beta-TrCP axis. Mol Cell Biol. 2012;32(17):3486–99. Pubmed Central PMCID: 3422007.
Rojo AI, Medina-Campos ON, Rada P, et al. Signaling pathways activated by the phytochemical nordihydroguaiaretic acid contribute to a Keap1-independent regulation of Nrf2 stability: role of glycogen synthase kinase-3. Free Radic Biol Med. 2012;52(2):473–87.
Lee OH, Jain AK, Papusha V, et al. An auto-regulatory loop between stress sensors INrf2 and Nrf2 controls their cellular abundance. J Biol Chem. 2007;282(50):36412–20.
Niture SK, Jaiswal AK. Prothymosin-alpha mediates nuclear import of the INrf2/Cul3 Rbx1 complex to degrade nuclear Nrf2. J Biol Chem. 2009;284(20):13856–68. Pubmed Central PMCID: 2679486.
Holtzclaw WD, Dinkova-Kostova AT, Talalay P. Protection against electrophile and oxidative stress by induction of phase 2 genes: the quest for the elusive sensor that responds to inducers. Adv Enzyme Regul. 2004;44(1):335–67.
Zhang M, An C, Gao Y, et al. Emerging roles of Nrf2 and phase II antioxidant enzymes in neuroprotection. Prog Neurobiol. 2013;100:30–47.
Zhang Y, Talalay P, Cho C-G, et al. A major inducer of anticarcinogenic protective enzymes from broccoli: isolation and elucidation of structure. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992;89(6):2399–403.
Shih AY, Li P, Murphy TH. A small-molecule-inducible Nrf2-mediated antioxidant response provides effective prophylaxis against cerebral ischemia in vivo. J Neurosci. 2005;25(44):10321–35.
Kraft AD, Lee JM, Johnson DA, et al. Neuronal sensitivity to kainic acid is dependent on the Nrf2-mediated actions of the antioxidant response element. J Neurochem. 2006;98(6):1852–65.
del Zoppo GJ. The neurovascular unit in the setting of stroke. J Intern Med. 2010;267(2):156–71. Pubmed Central PMCID: Pmc3001328, Epub 2010/02/24. eng.
Lo EH, Dalkara T, Moskowitz MA. Mechanisms, challenges and opportunities in stroke. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2003;4(5):399–414.
Zhang JH, Badaut J, Tang J, et al. The vascular neural network—a new paradigm in stroke pathophysiology. Nat Rev Neurol. 2012;8(12):711–6. Pubmed Central PMCID: Pmc3595043, Epub 2012/10/17. eng.
Silva-Islas C, Colín-González AL, Maldonado PD, et al. Nrf2 activation, an innovative therapeutic alternative in cerebral ischemia. INTECH Open Access; 2012.
Moskowitz MA, Lo EH, Iadecola C. The science of stroke: mechanisms in search of treatments. Neuron. 2010;67(2):181–98.
Terasaki Y, Liu Y, Hayakawa K, et al. Mechanisms of neurovascular dysfunction in acute ischemic brain. Curr Med Chem. 2014;21(18):2035.
Chan PH. Reactive oxygen radicals in signaling and damage in the ischemic brain. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2001;21(1):2–14.
Danton GH, Dietrich WD. Inflammatory mechanisms after ischemia and stroke. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2003;62(2):127–36.
Margaill I, Plotkine M, Lerouet D. Antioxidant strategies in the treatment of stroke. Free Radic Biol Med. 2005;39(4):429–43.
Crack PJ, Taylor JM. Reactive oxygen species and the modulation of stroke. Free Radic Biol Med. 2005;38(11):1433–44.
Gouriou Y, Demaurex N, Bijlenga P, et al. Mitochondrial calcium handling during ischemia-induced cell death in neurons. Biochimie. 2011;93(12):2060–7.
Zhang Y, Wang H, Li J, et al. Peroxynitrite-induced neuronal apoptosis is mediated by intracellular zinc release and 12-lipoxygenase activation. J Neurosci. 2004;24(47):10616–27.
Moro MA, Almeida A, Bolaños JP, et al. Mitochondrial respiratory chain and free radical generation in stroke. Free Radic Biol Med. 2005;39(10):1291–304.
Hallenbeck JM, Dutka AJ, Tanishima T, et al. Polymorphonuclear leukocyte accumulation in brain regions with low blood flow during the early postischemic period. Stroke. 1986;17(2):246–53.
Clark R, Lee E, Fish C, et al. Development of tissue damage, inflammation and resolution following stroke: an immunohistochemical and quantitative planimetric study. Brain Res Bull. 1993;31(5):565–72.
Campanella M, Sciorati C, Tarozzo G, et al. Flow cytometric analysis of inflammatory cells in ischemic rat brain. Stroke. 2002;33(2):586–92.
Shichita T, Ago T, Kamouchi M, et al. Novel therapeutic strategies targeting innate immune responses and early inflammation after stroke. J Neurochem. 2012;123(s2):29–38.
Heiss W-D. Stroke—acute interventions. Berlin: Springer; 2002.
Hou ST, MacManus JP. Molecular mechanisms of cerebral ischemia-induced neuronal death. Int Rev Cytol. 2002;221:93–148.
Dinkova-Kostova A, Cheah J, Samouilov A, et al. Phenolic Michael reaction acceptors: combined direct and indirect antioxidant defenses against electrophiles and oxidants. Med Chem. 2007;3(3):261–8.
Lindenau J, Noack H, Possel H, et al. Cellular distribution of superoxide dismutases in the rat CNS. Glia. 2000;29(1):25–34.
Dinkova‐Kostova AT, Talalay P. Direct and indirect antioxidant properties of inducers of cytoprotective proteins. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2008;52(S1):S128–38.
Kensler TW, Wakabayashi N, Biswal S. Cell survival responses to environmental stresses via the Keap1-Nrf2-ARE pathway. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:89–116.
Kobayashi A, Kang M-I, Okawa H, et al. Oxidative stress sensor Keap1 functions as an adaptor for Cul3-based E3 ligase to regulate proteasomal degradation of Nrf2. Mol Cell Biol. 2004;24(16):7130–9.
Peters O, Back T, Lindauer U, et al. Increased formation of reactive oxygen species after permanent and reversible middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1998;18(2):196–205.
Christensen T, Bruhn T, Balchen T, et al. Evidence for formation of hydroxyl radicals during reperfusion after global cerebral ischaemia in rats using salicylate trapping and microdialysis. Neurobiol Dis. 1994;1(3):131–8.
Liu S, Liu M, Peterson S, et al. Hydroxyl radical formation is greater in striatal core than in penumbra in a rat model of ischemic stroke. J Neurosci Res. 2003;71(6):882–8.
Tanaka N, Ikeda Y, Ohta Y, et al. Expression of Keap1–Nrf2 system and antioxidative proteins in mouse brain after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Brain Res. 2011;1370:246–53.
Dang J, Brandenburg L-O, Rosen C, et al. Nrf2 expression by neurons, astroglia, and microglia in the cerebral cortical penumbra of ischemic rats. J Mol Neurosci. 2012;46(3):578–84.
Li M, Zhang X, Cui L, et al. The neuroprotection of oxymatrine in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion is related to nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (nrf2)-mediated antioxidant response: role of nrf2 and hemeoxygenase-1 expression. Biol Pharm Bull. 2011;34(5):595–601.
Srivastava S, Alfieri A, Siow R, et al. Temporal and spatial distribution of Nrf2 in rat brain following stroke: quantification of nuclear to cytoplasmic Nrf2 content using a novel immunohistochemical technique. J Physiol. 2013;591(14):3525–38.
Liverman CS, Cui L, Yong C, et al. Response of the brain to oligemia: gene expression, c-Fos, and Nrf2 localization. Mol Brain Res. 2004;126(1):57–66.
Gladstone DJ, Black SE, Hakim AM. Toward wisdom from failure lessons from neuroprotective stroke trials and new therapeutic directions. Stroke. 2002;33(8):2123–36.
Herken R, Götz W, Thies M. Appearance of laminin, heparan sulphate proteoglycan and collagen type IV during initial stages of vascularisation of the neuroepithelium of the mouse embryo. J Anat. 1990;169:189.
Engvall E, Davis GE, Dickerson K, et al. Mapping of domains in human laminin using monoclonal antibodies: localization of the neurite-promoting site. J Cell Biol. 1986;103(6):2457–65.
Grant D, Kleinman H. Regulation of capillary formation by laminin and other components of the extracellular matrix. Regulation of angiogenesis. Berlin: Springer; 1997. p. 317–33.
Iadecola C. Neurovascular regulation in the normal brain and in Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2004;5(5):347–60.
Zonta M, Angulo MC, Gobbo S, et al. Neuron-to-astrocyte signaling is central to the dynamic control of brain microcirculation. Nat Neurosci. 2003;6(1):43–50.
del Zoppo GJ, Mabuchi T. Cerebral microvessel responses to focal ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2003;23(8):879–94.
del Zoppo GJ, Milner R. Integrin–matrix interactions in the cerebral microvasculature. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006;26(9):1966–75.
Mabuchi T, Lucero J, Feng A, et al. Focal cerebral ischemia preferentially affects neurons distant from their neighboring microvessels. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2005;25(2):257–66.
Hu X, Leak RK, Shi Y, et al. Microglial and macrophage polarization—new prospects for brain repair. Nat Rev Neurol. 2015;11(1):56–64.
Fumagalli S, Perego C, Pischiutta F, et al. The ischemic environment drives microglia and macrophage function. Front Neurol. 2015;6:81.
Dringen R, Gutterer JM, Hirrlinger J. Glutathione metabolism in brain. Eur J Biochem. 2000;267(16):4912–6.
Kraft AD, Johnson DA, Johnson JA. Nuclear factor E2-related factor 2-dependent antioxidant response element activation by tert-butylhydroquinone and sulforaphane occurring preferentially in astrocytes conditions neurons against oxidative insult. J Neurosci. 2004;24(5):1101–12.
Shih AY, Johnson DA, Wong G, et al. Coordinate regulation of glutathione biosynthesis and release by Nrf2-expressing glia potently protects neurons from oxidative stress. J Neurosci. 2003;23(8):3394–406.
Chen Y, Vartiainen NE, Ying W, et al. Astrocytes protect neurons from nitric oxide toxicity by a glutathione-dependent mechanism. J Neurochem. 2001;77(6):1601–10.
Halliwell B. Role of free radicals in the neurodegenerative diseases. Drugs Aging. 2001;18(9):685–716.
Vargas MR, Johnson JA. The Nrf2–ARE cytoprotective pathway in astrocytes. Expert Rev Mol Med. 2009;11:e17.
Bambrick L, Kristian T, Fiskum G. Astrocyte mitochondrial mechanisms of ischemic brain injury and neuroprotection. Neurochem Res. 2004;29(3):601–8.
Swanson RA, Ying W, Kauppinen TM. Astrocyte influences on ischemic neuronal death. Curr Mol Med. 2004;4(2):193–205.
Calkins MJ, Jakel RJ, Johnson DA, et al. Protection from mitochondrial complex II inhibition in vitro and in vivo by Nrf2-mediated transcription. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102(1):244–9.
Calkins MJ, Vargas MR, Johnson DA, et al. Astrocyte-specific overexpression of Nrf2 protects striatal neurons from mitochondrial complex II inhibition. Toxicol Sci. 2010;115(2):557–68.
Bell KF, Fowler JH, Al-Mubarak B, et al. Activation of Nrf2-regulated glutathione pathway genes by ischemic preconditioning. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2011;2011:689524.
Narayanan SV, Dave KR, Saul I, et al. Resveratrol preconditioning protects against cerebral ischemic injury via nuclear erythroid 2–related factor 2. Stroke. 2015;46(6):1626–32.
Schroeter ML, Mertsch K, Giese H, et al. Astrocytes enhance radical defence in capillary endothelial cells constituting the blood-brain barrier. FEBS Lett. 1999;449(2):241–4.
Laird MD, Ramesh SS, Alleyne CH, et al. Astrocyte-derived glutathione attenuates hemin-induced cytotoxicity in murine cerebral microvessel. FASEB J. 2009;23(1_MeetingAbstracts):614.12.
Lee BJ, Egi Y, van Leyen K, et al. Edaravone, a free radical scavenger, protects components of the neurovascular unit against oxidative stress in vitro. Brain Res. 2010;1307:22–7.
Chrissobolis S, Banfi B, Sobey CG, et al. Role of Nox isoforms in angiotensin II-induced oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction in brain. J Appl Physiol. 2012;113(2):184–91.
Pacher P, Szabo C. Role of the peroxynitrite-poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase pathway in human disease. Am J Pathol. 2008;173(1):2–13.
Weiss N, Miller F, Cazaubon S, et al. The blood-brain barrier in brain homeostasis and neurological diseases. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2009;1788(4):842–57.
Posada-Duque RA, Barreto GE, Cardona-Gomez GP. Protection after stroke: cellular effectors of neurovascular unit integrity. Front Cell Neurosci. 2014;8:231.
Alfieri A, Srivastava S, Siow RC, et al. Sulforaphane preconditioning of the Nrf2/HO-1 defense pathway protects the cerebral vasculature against blood–brain barrier disruption and neurological deficits in stroke. Free Radic Biol Med. 2013;65:1012–22.
Bénardais K, Pul R, Singh V, et al. Effects of fumaric acid esters on blood–brain barrier tight junction proteins. Neurosci Lett. 2013;555:165–70.
Kunze R, Urrutia A, Hoffmann A, et al. Dimethyl fumarate attenuates cerebral edema formation by protecting the blood–brain barrier integrity. Exp Neurol. 2015;266:99–111.
Wu S, Yue Y, Li J, et al. Procyanidin B2 attenuates neurological deficits and blood–brain barrier disruption in a rat model of cerebral ischemia. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2015;59(10):1930–41.
Chen G, Fang Q, Zhang J, et al. Role of the Nrf2‐ARE pathway in early brain injury after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosci Res. 2011;89(4):515–23.
Li T, Sun K-J, Wang H-D, et al. Tert-butylhydroquinone ameliorates early brain injury after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage in mice by enhancing Nrf2-independent autophagy. Neurochem Res. 2015;40(9):1829–38.
Wang Z, Ji C, Wu L, et al. Tert-butylhydroquinone alleviates early brain injury and cognitive dysfunction after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage: role of Keap1/Nrf2/ARE pathway. PLoS One. 2014;9(5):e97685.
Wu Q, Zhang X-S, Wang H-D, et al. Astaxanthin activates nuclear factor erythroid-related factor 2 and the antioxidant responsive element (Nrf2-ARE) pathway in the brain after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats and attenuates early brain injury. Mar Drugs. 2014;12(12):6125–41.
Shi S-S, Zhang H-B, Wang C-H, et al. Propofol attenuates early brain injury after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats. J Mol Neurosci. 2015;7(4):538–45.
Wang Z, Ma C, Meng CJ, et al. Melatonin activates the Nrf2‐ARE pathway when it protects against early brain injury in a subarachnoid hemorrhage model. J Pineal Res. 2012;53(2):129–37.
Zhang J, Zhu Y, Zhou D, et al. Recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) alleviates early brain injury following subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats: possible involvement of Nrf2–ARE pathway. Cytokine. 2010;52(3):252–7.
Li T, Wang H, Ding Y, et al. Genetic elimination of Nrf2 aggravates secondary complications except for vasospasm after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage in mice. Brain Res. 2014;1558:90–9.
Zhao J, Moore AN, Redell JB, et al. Enhancing expression of Nrf2-driven genes protects the blood–brain barrier after brain injury. J Neurosci. 2007;27(38):10240–8.
Jin W, Ni H, Hou X, et al. Tert-butylhydroquinone protects the spinal cord against inflammatory response produced by spinal cord injury. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2014;44(2):151–7.
Mao L, Wang H, Qiao L, et al. Disruption of Nrf2 enhances the upregulation of nuclear factor-kappaB activity, tumor necrosis factor-, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 after spinal cord injury in mice. Mediators Inflamm. 2010;2010:238321.
Allan SM, Rothwell NJ. Inflammation in central nervous system injury. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2003;358(1438):1669–77.
Bechmann I, Galea I, Perry VH. What is the blood–brain barrier (not)? Trends Immunol. 2007;28(1):5–11.
Molina‐Holgado E, Molina‐Holgado F. Mending the broken brain: neuroimmune interactions in neurogenesis. J Neurochem. 2010;114(5):1277–90.
Aspelund A, Antila S, Proulx ST, et al. A dural lymphatic vascular system that drains brain interstitial fluid and macromolecules. J Exp Med. 2015;212(7):991–9. PubMed PMID: WOS:000357117200004. English.
Louveau A, Smirnov I, Keyes TJ, et al. Structural and functional features of central nervous system lymphatic vessels. Nature. 2015;523(7560):337–41. Pubmed Central PMCID: 4506234.
Stoll G, Jander S, Schroeter M. Inflammation and glial responses in ischemic brain lesions. Prog Neurobiol. 1998;56(2):149–71.
Amantea D, Nappi G, Bernardi G, et al. Post-ischemic brain damage: pathophysiology and role of inflammatory mediators. FEBS J. 2009;276(1):13–26.
Foresti R, Bains SK, Pitchumony TS, et al. Small molecule activators of the Nrf2-HO-1 antioxidant axis modulate heme metabolism and inflammation in BV2 microglia cells. Pharmacol Res. 2013;76:132–48.
Dilshara MG, Lee K-T, Kim HJ, et al. Anti-inflammatory mechanism of α-viniferin regulates lipopolysaccharide-induced release of proinflammatory mediators in BV2 microglial cells. Cell Immunol. 2014;290(1):21–9.
Min KJ, Kim JH, Jou I, et al. Adenosine induces heme oxygenase-1 expression in microglia through the activation of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase and nuclear factor E2-related factor 2. Glia. 2008;56(9):1028–37.
Lee EJ, Ko HM, Jeong YH, et al. beta-Lapachone suppresses neuroinflammation by modulating the expression of cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases in activated microglia. J Neuroinflammation. 2015;12:133. Pubmed Central PMCID: Pmc4502557. Epub 2015/07/16. eng.
Lee D-S, Ko W, Yoon C-S, et al. KCHO-1, a novel antineuroinflammatory agent, inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammatory responses through Nrf2-mediated heme oxygenase-1 expression in mouse BV2 microglia cells. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2014;2014:357154.
Lee E-J, Kim H-S. The anti-inflammatory role of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated microglia. J Neuroinflammation. 2014;11:116.
Jisun L, Samantha G, Jianhua Z. Autophagy, mitochondria and oxidative stress: cross-talk and redox signalling. Biochem J. 2012;441(2):523–40.
Chen Y, Klionsky DJ. The regulation of autophagy–unanswered questions. J Cell Sci. 2011;124(2):161–70.
Cooper CE, Patel RP, Brookes PS, et al. Nanotransducers in cellular redox signaling: modification of thiols by reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Trends Biochem Sci. 2002;27(10):489–92.
Bae SH, Sung SH, Oh SY, et al. Sestrins activate Nrf2 by promoting p62-dependent autophagic degradation of Keap1 and prevent oxidative liver damage. Cell Metab. 2013;17(1):73–84.
Vadlamudi RK, Joung I, Strominger JL, et al. p62, a phosphotyrosine-independent ligand of the SH2 domain of p56lck, belongs to a new class of ubiquitin-binding proteins. J Biol Chem. 1996;271(34):20235–7.
Bjørkøy G, Lamark T, Brech A, et al. p62/SQSTM1 forms protein aggregates degraded by autophagy and has a protective effect on huntingtin-induced cell death. J Cell Biol. 2005;171(4):603–14.
Jain A, Lamark T, Sjøttem E, et al. p62/SQSTM1 is a target gene for transcription factor NRF2 and creates a positive feedback loop by inducing antioxidant response element-driven gene transcription. J Biol Chem. 2010;285(29):22576–91.
Fujita K-I, Maeda D, Xiao Q, et al. Nrf2-mediated induction of p62 controls Toll-like receptor-4–driven aggresome-like induced structure formation and autophagic degradation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108(4):1427–32.
Riley BE, Kaiser SE, Shaler TA, et al. Ubiquitin accumulation in autophagy-deficient mice is dependent on the Nrf2-mediated stress response pathway: a potential role for protein aggregation in autophagic substrate selection. J Cell Biol. 2010;191(3):537–52.
Chang AL, Ulrich A, Suliman HB, et al. Redox regulation of mitophagy in the lung during murine Staphylococcus aureus sepsis. Free Radic Biol Med. 2015;78:179–89.
Ichimura Y, Waguri S, Sou Y-S, et al. Phosphorylation of p62 activates the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway during selective autophagy. Mol Cell. 2013;51(5):618–31.
Taguchi K, Fujikawa N, Komatsu M, et al. Keap1 degradation by autophagy for the maintenance of redox homeostasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109(34):13561–6.
Yang Z, Zhao T-Z, Zou Y-J, et al. Hypoxia induces autophagic cell death through hypoxia-inducible factor 1α in microglia. PLoS One. 2014;9(5):e96509.
Yang Z, Zhong L, Zhong S, et al. Hypoxia induces microglia autophagy and neural inflammation injury in focal cerebral ischemia model. Exp Mol Pathol. 2015;98(2):219–24.
Chen W, Sun Y, Liu K, et al. Autophagy: a double-edged sword for neuronal survival after cerebral ischemia. Neural Regen Res. 2014;9(12):1210.
Mukherjee S, Ghosh RN, Maxfield FR. Endocytosis. Physiol Rev. 1997;77(3):759–803.
Parnaik R, Raff MC, Scholes J. Differences between the clearance of apoptotic cells by professional and non-professional phagocytes. Curr Biol. 2000;10(14):857–60.
Sierra A, Encinas JM, Deudero JJ, et al. Microglia shape adult hippocampal neurogenesis through apoptosis-coupled phagocytosis. Cell Stem Cell. 2010;7(4):483–95.
Henson PM, Hume DA. Apoptotic cell removal in development and tissue homeostasis. Trends Immunol. 2006;27(5):244–50.
Sierra A, Abiega O, Shahraz A, et al. Janus-faced microglia: beneficial and detrimental consequences of microglial phagocytosis. Front Cell Neurosci. 2013;7:6.
Faustino JV, Wang X, Johnson CE, et al. Microglial cells contribute to endogenous brain defenses after acute neonatal focal stroke. J Neurosci. 2011;31(36):12992–3001.
Lalancette-Hébert M, Gowing G, Simard A, et al. Selective ablation of proliferating microglial cells exacerbates ischemic injury in the brain. J Neurosci. 2007;27(10):2596–605.
Manoonkitiwongsa PS, Jackson-Friedman C, McMillan PJ, et al. Angiogenesis after stroke is correlated with increased numbers of macrophages: the clean-up hypothesis. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2001;21(10):1223–31.
Mimche PN, Thompson E, Taramelli D, et al. Curcumin enhances non-opsonic phagocytosis of Plasmodium falciparum through up-regulation of CD36 surface expression on monocytes/macrophages. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67(8):1895–904.
Suganuma H, Fahey JW, Bryan KE, et al. Stimulation of phagocytosis by sulforaphane. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2011;405(1):146–51.
Harvey CJ, Thimmulappa RK, Sethi S, et al. Targeting Nrf2 signaling improves bacterial clearance by alveolar macrophages in patients with COPD and in a mouse model. Sci Transl Med. 2011;3(78):78ra32.
Li E, Noda M, Doi Y, et al. The neuroprotective effects of milk fat globule-EGF factor 8 against oligomeric amyloid β toxicity. J Neuroinflammation. 2012;9(148):2657–66.
Zhao X, Sun G, Ting SM, et al. Cleaning up after ICH: the role of Nrf2 in modulating microglia function and hematoma clearance. J Neurochem. 2015;133(1):144–52.
De Simone R, Ajmone-Cat MA, Tirassa P, et al. Apoptotic PC12 cells exposing phosphatidylserine promote the production of anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective molecules by microglial cells. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2003;62(2):208–16.
Ryu K-Y, Cho G-S, Piao HZ, et al. Role of TGF-β in survival of phagocytizing microglia: autocrine suppression of TNF-α production and oxidative stress. Exp Neurobiol. 2012;21(4):151–7.
Neher JJ, Emmrich JV, Fricker M, et al. Phagocytosis executes delayed neuronal death after focal brain ischemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013;110(43):E4098–107.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Yang, T., Sun, Y., Zhang, F. (2016). The Role of Nonneuronal Nrf2 Pathway in Ischemic Stroke: Damage Control and Potential Tissue Repair. In: Chen, J., Zhang, J., Hu, X. (eds) Non-Neuronal Mechanisms of Brain Damage and Repair After Stroke. Springer Series in Translational Stroke Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32337-4_18
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32337-4_18
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-32335-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-32337-4
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)