Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Epidemiology of Hypertension and Brain Disease

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Hypertension and Brain Damage

Part of the book series: Updates in Hypertension and Cardiovascular Protection ((UHCP))

  • 1378 Accesses

Abstract

Hypertension is the most prevalent cardiovascular disorder affecting 20–50 % of the adult population in developed countries. There are considerable differences in the prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension worldwide. Elevated BP is the strongest modifiable risk factor for stroke, both ischemic and hemorrhagic. About 54 % of strokes all over the world are attributed to high BP (systolic BP > 115 mmHg). The prevalence and incidence of stroke in the general population increases with age and is directly related to BP levels. The prevalence of dementia shows a strong increase with age from 5 % at the age of 65 years to 20 % at the age of 80 years and 40 % at the age of 90 years. However, the link between BP and cognitive function is complex. Hypertension predisposes to cognitive decline and dementia, although BP commonly decreases when dementia develops.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Whelton PK, He J (2004) Worldwide prevalence of hypertension: a systematic review. J Hypertens 22:11–19

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Lawes CM, Vander Hoorn S, Law MR, Elliott P, MacMahon S, Rodgers A (2006) Blood pressure and the global burden of disease 2000. Part 1: estimates of blood pressure levels. J Hypertens 24:413–422

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Obisesan TO, Vargas CM, Gillum RF (2000) Geographic variation in stroke risk in the United States. Region, urbanization, and hypertension in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Stroke 31:19–25

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Yoon SS, Gu Q, Nwankwo T, Wright JD, Hong Y, Burt V (2015) Trends in blood pressure among adults with hypertension: United States, 2003 to 2012. Hypertension 65:54–61. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.04012, Epub 2014 Nov 16

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Wolf-Maier K, Cooper RS, Banegas JR, Giampaoli S, Hense HW, Joffres M, Kastarinen M, Poulter N, Primatesta P, Rodríguez-Artalejo F, Stegmayr B, Thamm M, Tuomilehto J, Vanuzzo D, Vescio F (2003) Hypertension prevalence and blood pressure levels in 6 European countries, Canada, and the United States. JAMA 289:2363–2369

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Padwal RS, Bienek A, McAlister FA, Campbell NR; Outcomes Research Task Force of the Canadian Hypertension Education Program (2015) Epidemiology of hypertension in Canada: an update. Can J Cardiol pii: S0828-282X(15)01306-9. doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2015.07.734. [Epub ahead of print]

    Google Scholar 

  7. Cooper RS (2007) Using public health indicators to measure the success of hypertension control. Hypertension 49:773–774

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Mozaffarian D, Benjamin EJ, Go AS, Arnett DK, Blaha MJ, Cushman M, Das SR, de Ferranti S, Després JP, Fullerton HJ, Howard VJ, Huffman MD, Isasi CR, Jiménez MC, Judd SE, Kissela BM, Lichtman JH, Lisabeth LD, Liu S, Mackey RH, Magid DJ, McGuire DK, Mohler ER 3rd, Moy CS, Muntner P, Mussolino ME, Nasir K, Neumar RW, Nichol G, Palaniappan L, Pandey DK, Reeves MJ, Rodriguez CJ, Rosamond W, Sorlie PD, Stein J, Towfighi A, Turan TN, Virani SS, Woo D, Yeh RW, Turner MB (2016) Heart disease and stroke statistics-2016 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 133:e38–e360. doi:10.1161. pii: CIR.0000000000000350. [Epub ahead of print] No abstract available

    Google Scholar 

  9. Townsend N, Nichols M, Scarborough P, Rayner M (2015) Cardiovascular disease in Europe – epidemiological update 2015. Eur Heart J 36:2696–2705. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehv428

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. GBD 2013 Risk Factors Collaborators (2015) Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 386(10010):2287–2323

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Lawes CM, Vander Hoorn S, Rodgers A, International Society of Hypertension (2008) Global burden of blood-pressure-related disease, 2001. Lancet 371:1513–1518

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R (2002) Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet 360:1903–1913

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Lawes CM, Bennett DA, Feigin VL, Rodgers A (2004) Blood pressure and stroke: an overview of published reviews. Stroke 35:1024

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Wolf PA (1999) Cerebrovascular risk. In: Izzo JL Jr, Black HR (senior ed) Hypertension primer, 2nd edn. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, pp 203–207

    Google Scholar 

  15. Wolf PA, D’Agostino RB, O’Neal MA, Sytkowski P, Kase CS, Belanger AJ, Kannel WB (1992) Secular trends in stroke incidence and mortality. The Framingham Study. Stroke 23(11):1551–1555

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Qureshi AI, Suri MF, Mohammad Y, Guterman LR, Hopkins LN (2002) Isolated and borderline isolated systolic hypertension relative to long-term risk and type of stroke: a 20-year follow-up of the national health and nutrition survey. Stroke 12:2781–2788

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Feigin VL, Forouzanfar MH, Krishnamurthi R, Mensah GA, Connor M, Bennett DA, Moran AE, Sacco RL, Anderson L, Truelsen T, O’Donnell M, Venketasubramanian N, Barker-Collo S, Lawes CM, Wang W, Shinohara Y, Witt E, Ezzati M, Naghavi M, Murray C, Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2010 (GBD 2010) and the GBD Stroke Experts Group (2014) Global and regional burden of stroke during 1990–2010: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 383(9913):245–254

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Redon J, Olsen MH, Cooper RS, Zurriaga O, Martinez-Beneito MA, Laurent S, Cifkova R, Coca A, Mancia G (2011) Stroke mortality and trends from 1990 to 2006 in 39 countries from Europe and Central Asia: implications for control of high blood pressure. Eur Heart J 32:1424–1431. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehr045, Epub 2011 Apr 12

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Lackland DT, Roccella EJ, Deutsch AF, Fornage M, George MG, Howard G, Kissela BM, Kittner SJ, Lichtman JH, Lisabeth LD, Schwamm LH, Smith EE, Towfighi A, American Heart Association Stroke Council; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research; Council on Functional Genomics and Translational Biology (2014) Factors influencing the decline in stroke mortality: a statement from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 45:315–353. doi:10.1161/01.str.0000437068.30550.cf, Epub 2013 Dec 5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 Collaborators (2015) Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet (London, England) 386:743–800

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Ferri CP, Prince M, Brayne C et al (2005) Global prevalence of dementia: a Delphi consensus study. Lancet (London, England) 366:2112–2117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Launer LJ, Ross GW, Petrovitch H et al (2000) Midlife blood pressure and dementia: the Honolulu-Asia aging study. Neurobiol Aging 21:49–55

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Kivipelto M, Helkala EL, Laakso MP et al (2002) Apolipoprotein E epsilon4 allele, elevated midlife total cholesterol level, and high midlife systolic blood pressure are independent risk factors for late-life Alzheimer disease. Ann Intern Med 137:149–155

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Viswanathan A, Rocca WA, Tzourio C (2009) Vascular risk factors and dementia: how to move forward? Neurology 72:368–374

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Qiu C, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L (2005) The age-dependent relation of blood pressure to cognitive function and dementia. Lancet Neurol 4:487–499

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Skoog I, Lernfelt B, Landahl S et al (1996) 15-year longitudinal study of blood pressure and dementia. Lancet (London, England) 347:1141–1145

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Whitmer RA, Sidney S, Selby J, Johnston SC, Yaffe K (2005) Midlife cardiovascular risk factors and risk of dementia in late life. Neurology 64:277–281

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Qiu C, Winblad B, Viitanen M, Fratiglioni L (2003) Pulse pressure and risk of Alzheimer disease in persons aged 75 years and older: a community-based, longitudinal study. Stroke J Cerebral Circ 34:594–599

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Verghese J, Lipton RB, Hall CB, Kuslansky G, Katz MJ (2003) Low blood pressure and the risk of dementia in very old individuals. Neurology 61:1667–1672

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Rouch L, Cestac P, Hanon O et al (2015) Antihypertensive drugs, prevention of cognitive decline and dementia: a systematic review of observational studies, randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses, with discussion of potential mechanisms. CNS Drugs 29:113–130

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Yasar S, Corrada M, Brookmeyer R, Kawas C (2005) Calcium channel blockers and risk of AD: the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Neurobiol Aging 26:157–163

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Morris MC, Scherr PA, Hebert LE, Glynn RJ, Bennett DA, Evans DA (2001) Association of incident Alzheimer disease and blood pressure measured from 13 years before to 2 years after diagnosis in a large community study. Arch Neurol 58:1640–1646

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Lindsay J, Laurin D, Verreault R et al (2002) Risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease: a prospective analysis from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging. Am J Epidemiol 156:445–453

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Qiu C, von Strauss E, Fastbom J, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L (2003) Low blood pressure and risk of dementia in the Kungsholmen project: a 6-year follow-up study. Arch Neurol 60:223–228

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Khachaturian AS, Zandi PP, Lyketsos CG et al (2006) Antihypertensive medication use and incident Alzheimer disease: the Cache County Study. Arch Neurol 63:686–692

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Peila R, White LR, Masaki K, Petrovitch H, Launer LJ (2006) Reducing the risk of dementia: efficacy of long-term treatment of hypertension. Stroke J Cerebral Circ 37:1165–1170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Li NC, Lee A, Whitmer RA et al (2010) Use of angiotensin receptor blockers and risk of dementia in a predominantly male population: prospective cohort analysis. BMJ 340:b5465

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Johnson ML, Parikh N, Kunik ME et al (2012) Antihypertensive drug use and the risk of dementia in patients with diabetes mellitus. Alzheimer’s Dementia J Alzheimer’s Assoc 8:437–444

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Yasar S, Xia J, Yao W et al (2013) Antihypertensive drugs decrease risk of Alzheimer disease: Ginkgo Evaluation of Memory Study. Neurology 81:896–903

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Forette F, Seux ML, Staessen JA et al (1998) Prevention of dementia in randomised double-blind placebo-controlled Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) trial. Lancet (London, England) 352:1347–1351

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Forette F, Seux ML, Staessen JA et al (2002) The prevention of dementia with antihypertensive treatment: new evidence from the Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) study. Arch Intern Med 162:2046–2052

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Tzourio C, Anderson C, Chapman N et al (2003) Effects of blood pressure lowering with perindopril and indapamide therapy on dementia and cognitive decline in patients with cerebrovascular disease. Arch Intern Med 163:1069–1075

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Applegate WB, Pressel S, Wittes J et al (1994) Impact of the treatment of isolated systolic hypertension on behavioral variables. Results from the systolic hypertension in the elderly program. Arch Intern Med 154:2154–2160

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Lithell H, Hansson L, Skoog I et al (2003) The Study on Cognition and Prognosis in the Elderly (SCOPE): principal results of a randomized double-blind intervention trial. J Hypertens 21:875–886

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Peters R, Beckett N, Forette F et al (2008) Incident dementia and blood pressure lowering in the Hypertension in the Very Elderly Trial cognitive function assessment (HYVET-COG): a double-blind, placebo controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 7:683–689

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Levi Marpillat N, Macquin-Mavier I, Tropeano AI, Bachoud-Levi AC, Maison P (2013) Antihypertensive classes, cognitive decline and incidence of dementia: a network meta-analysis. J Hypertens 31:1073–1082

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Pendlebury ST, Rothwell PM (2009) Prevalence, incidence, and factors associated with pre-stroke and post-stroke dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Neurol 8:1006–1018

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Law MR, Morris JK, Wald NJ (2009) Use of blood pressure lowering drugs in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of 147 randomised trials in the context of expectations from prospective epidemiological studies. BMJ. 338:b1665. doi: 10.1136/bmj.b1665

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. First Faculty of Medicine and Thomayer Hospital, Center for Cardiovascular Prevention, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic

    Renata Cifkova & Peter Wohlfahrt

  2. Department of Medicine II, Charles University Medical School I, Prague, Czech Republic

    Renata Cifkova

  3. International Clinical Research Center, Brno, Czech Republic

    Renata Cifkova & Peter Wohlfahrt

  4. Center of Experimental Medicine, Institute for Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Prague, Czech Republic

    Peter Wohlfahrt

Authors
  1. Renata Cifkova
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Peter Wohlfahrt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Renata Cifkova .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Hypertension & Vascular Risk Unit, Hospital Clínic, Barcelona, Spain

    Antonio Coca

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Cifkova, R., Wohlfahrt, P. (2016). Epidemiology of Hypertension and Brain Disease. In: Coca, A. (eds) Hypertension and Brain Damage. Updates in Hypertension and Cardiovascular Protection. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32074-8_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32074-8_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-32072-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-32074-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation