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Muslims in Australia and Germany: Demographics, Resources, Citizenship

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Muslim Citizenship in Liberal Democracies

Part of the book series: Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series ((CAL))

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Abstract

This chapter contextualises the empirical study on Muslims’ civic and political engagement in Australia and Germany by providing an overview on the demographic and socioeconomic situation of Muslims in both countries. According to the Civic Voluntarism Model (Verba et al. 1995), resources and skills enable citizens to become politically active, and there is evidence that this facilitating factor applies to both political and civic participation. This chapter also elaborates on various dimensions of Muslim citizenship, based on existing research, namely their legal status, sense of belonging, recognition (or lack thereof) and participation.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The MLG study was based on a survey among 6000 (Muslim and non-Muslim) migrants and their descendants from around 50 Muslim-majority countries. The survey was carried out in eight different community languages so that the respondents’ German proficiency would not affect their participation in the survey. This survey became and remains the key resource for statistical examinations of Muslims in Germany, despite its methodological limitations deriving from its focus on first and second generation immigrants only.

  2. 2.

    This book was completed before the arrival of large numbers of predominantly Muslim refugees from Syria and other Muslim majority countries in 2015 and 2016. The Muslim population in Germany is assumed to have changed significantly as a result of these developments, but the extent of these change has not been accurately investigated yet.

  3. 3.

    The 2011 census statistics presented in this section on Australia have been included in a previous article by the author; they all refer to Peucker et al. (2014) unless indicated otherwise.

  4. 4.

    Similarly high rates of identification with Australian society have been found by Markus (2012b: 15) in the 2012 Scanlon Social Cohesion Neighbourhood Report. Nine of 10 surveyed Muslims had a great (51 %) or moderate (39 %) sense of belonging in Australia.

  5. 5.

    One of the most researched topics in the broader context of Muslims in the West is their portrayal in the mass media. The results of these studies largely confirm Muslims’ views on the predominantly biased media depiction. Some major studies investigating the situation in Australia are, for example, Brasted (2001), Isakhan (2010), Manning (2004), and Akbarzadeh and Smith (2005). In the German context, Hafez (2000), Hafez and Richter (2007), Halm et al. (2006) and Frindte et al. (2011) have examined the misrepresentation of Islam and Muslims in the media. For an overview on these and other studies, see Peucker and Akbarzadeh (2014).

  6. 6.

    Some recently concluded studies on Muslim citizenship in the Australian context, such as Harris and Roose (2014) and Chloe Patton (2014), conceptualise citizenship in very broad terms, partially borrowing from Isin and Nielsen’s (2008) ‘acts of citizenship’. This understanding goes beyond the notion of active citizenship as deployed in this research, for example, by including social interactions in the neighbourhood and other acts related to Muslims’ developing a sense of belonging and civic recognition. Although these studies have generated innovative insights into Muslims’ negotiation of identity in Australia, they have not examined civic or political participation as defined in this present research. Therefore they are not included here.

  7. 7.

    The Scanlon Social Cohesion survey found that the participation in elections is lower among immigrants of non-English speaking background than among Australian-born; this may support the assumption that language difficulties can be a hampering factor of electoral participation for immigrants (Markus 2012b: 20).

  8. 8.

    The Scanlon Social Cohesion survey includes a question on political participation using similar items, asking respondents about their involvement in any of these activities ‘in the past three years or so’. Given the different wording of the question, the responses are not fully comparable.

  9. 9.

    The fact that the difference in political activities between all Australian-born people (including second generation) and third generation Australians is negligible tentatively suggest that factors related to the immigration situation of foreign-born non-English speaking background people and, more specifically, their (initial) English language deficits do influence the extent and proneness of political participation.

  10. 10.

    This confirms the findings of previous studies on the election participation of first and second generation migrant (Wüst 2002).

  11. 11.

    This may, however, underestimate the exact number of Muslim parliamentarians as several MPs of Turkish descent either failed to respond to the journalists’ query or explained that religion is a private matter, refusing to make public whether they are Muslims or not.

  12. 12.

    A few older studies have examined homeland-oriented political activism of Turkish and/or Kurdish immigrants in Germany (see, for example, Ögelman 2003; Østergaard-Nielsen 2001). These studies, which draw from data collected in the 1990s, appear to be outdated and are thus considered of minor relevance for this research with its focus on Muslims’ contemporary active citizenship within Germany.

  13. 13.

    The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) defines a volunteer ‘as someone who, in the previous 12 months, willingly gave unpaid help, in the form of time, service or skills, through an organisation or group’ (ABS 2011a: 3).

  14. 14.

    This share is slightly below the 38 % of Australians aged 18 years and older who volunteered according to the 2010 General Social Survey (ABS 2011b).

  15. 15.

    Formal volunteering referred to ‘time and effort’ given to certain organisations, while informal volunteering was defined as ‘time and effort’ given ‘the community outside of an organisation e.g. local neighbourhood, social networks, community networks’.

  16. 16.

    Halm and Sayer used a German and a Turkish version of the questionnaire, and therefore were more likely to reach those Turkish first/second generation migrants whose German proficiency was too poor to respond to the German-only Volunteering Survey (Geiss and Gensicke 2006). This has been described as a systematic bias and one of the methodology-related reasons for the extremely low volunteering rate found in Halm and Sauer’s study.

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Peucker, M. (2016). Muslims in Australia and Germany: Demographics, Resources, Citizenship. In: Muslim Citizenship in Liberal Democracies. Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31403-7_4

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