Abstract
At the time of the Great Debate nebulæ where recognized to have different morphologies and first classifications, sometimes only descriptive, have been attempted. A review of these early classification systems are well documented by the Allan Sandage’s review in 2005 (Sandage 2005 ). This review emphasized the debt, in term of continuity of forms of spiral galaxies, due by the Hubble’s classification scheme to the Reynold’s systems proposed in 1920 (Reynolds 1920 ).
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Editors Note: \(\lambda _{r}\) is a parameter describing the specific baryonic angular momentum defined as follows, \(\lambda _{r}\)=\(\langle r\vert V \vert \rangle /\langle r\sqrt{V ^{2 } +\sigma ^{2}}\rangle\), where r is the galacto-centric distance, V and \(\sigma\) are luminosity weighted averages of the rotation velocity and velocity dispersion over a two-dimensional kinematical field.
- 2.
The “Sersic profile” is a photometric law empirically devised by Josè Luis Sersic in 1963 for fitting the luminosity profile of early-type galaxies:
$$\displaystyle{I(r) = I_{0}\ exp(-(\frac{r} {\alpha } )^{ \frac{1} {n} })}$$where r is the radius, I the intensity, I 0 the intensity at the galaxy center, n the Sersic index, α the scale length.
- 3.
Simple being here an advantage over the complex cameras generally used by professional astronomers that are subject to a larger number of instrumental artifacts.
- 4.
[Note of the Editors] These observations used small size (0.16–0.58 m) private telescopes with large field of view (20.4×30.6–73.7×110.6 arcmin) with a scale in the range 0.4–1.66 arsec px−1.
- 5.
References
Abraham, R., van den Bergh, S., Nair, P.: A new approach to galaxy morphology. I. Analysis of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Early data release. Astrophys. J. 588, 218 (2003)
Andrae, R., Jahnke, K., Melchior, P.: Parametrizing arbitrary galaxy morphologies: potentials and pitfalls. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 411, 385 (2011)
Arnold, J., Romanowsky, Aaron J., Brodie, J.P., Forbes, D.A., Strader, J., et al.: The SLUGGS survey: wide-field stellar kinematics of early-type galaxies. Astrophys. J. 791, 80 (2014)
Arp, H.: Atlas of peculiar galaxies. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 14, 1 (1966)
Arp, H., Madore, B.: A Catalogue of Southern Peculiar Galaxies and Associations. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1987)
Athanassoula, E., Laurikainen, E., Salo, H., Bosma, A.: On the nature of the barlens component in barred galaxies. astro-ph 1405.6726 (2014)
Ball, N.M., Brunner, R.J.: Data mining and machine learning in astronomy. Int. J. Mod. Phys. D 19, 1049 (2010)
Barentine, J., Kormendy, J.: Two pseudobulges in the “boxy bulge” galaxy NGC 5746. Astrophys. J. 754, 140 (2012)
Bender, R.: Rotating and counter-rotating cores in elliptical galaxies. Astron. Astrophys. 193, 7 (1988)
Bertola, F., Capaccioli, M.: Dynamics of early type galaxies. I - The rotation curve of the elliptical galaxy NGC 4697. Astrophys. J. 200, 439 (1975)
Block, D., Freeman, K.: Walk with Allan Sandage. In: Freeman, K., Elmegreen, B., Block, D., Woolway, M.A. (eds.) Lessons from the Local Group, p.1. Springer, Dordrecht (2015)
Block, D., Wainscoatt, R.: Morphological differences between optical and infrared images of the spiral galaxy NGC309. Nature 353, 48 (1991)
Block, D., Elmegreen, B., Wainscoat, R.: Smooth dark spiral arms in the flocculent galaxy NGC2841. Nature 381, 674 (1996)
Block, D., et al.: The Hubble tuning fork strikes a new note. In: Block, D.L., Puerari, I., Freeman, K.C., Groess, R., Block, E.K. (eds.) Penetrating Bars Through Masks of Cosmic Dust: The Hubble Tuning Fork Strikes a New Note. Proceedings of a Conference Held at Pilanesburg National Park (South Africa). Astrophysics and Space Science Library, vol. 319, p. 15. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (2004)
Bois M., Emsellem, E., Bournaud, F., Alatalo, K., Blitz, L., et al.: The ATLAS3D project - VI. Simulations of binary galaxy mergers and the link with fast rotators, slow rotators and kinematically distinct cores. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 416, 1654 (2011)
Bournaud, F., Elmegreen, B.G., Elmegreen, D.M.: Astrophys. J. 670, 237 (2007)
Bournaud, F., Duc, P.-A., Brinks, E., Boquien, M., Amram, P., et al.: Missing mass in collisional debris from galaxies. Science 316, 1166 (2007)
Brodie J.P., Romanowsky, A.J., Strader, J., Forbes, D.A., Foster, C., et al.: The SAGES legacy unifying globulars and galaxies survey (SLUGGS): sample definition, methods, and initial results. Astrophys. J. 796, 52 (2014)
Buta, R.: Galaxy morphology. In: Falcon-Barroso, J., Knapen, J. (eds.) Secular Evolution of Galaxies, p.155. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2013)
Buta, R., Corwin, H.G., Jr., Odewahn, S.C.: In: Athanassoula, E., Bosma, A., Mujica, R. (eds.) The de Vaucouleurs Atlas of Galaxies. Disks of Galaxies: Kinematics, Dynamics and Perturbations. ASP Conference Proceedings. vol. 275, p. 102. Astronomical Society of the Pacific, San Francisco (2002)
Buta, R., Sheth, K., Athanassoula, E., Bosma, A., Knapen, J., et al.: A classical morphological analysis of galaxies in the Spitzer survey of stellar structure in galaxies (S4G). Astrophys. J. Suppl. 217 (2), A32, 46 pp. (2015)
Caon, N., Capaccioli, M., D’Onofrio, M.: On the shape of the light profiles of early type galaxies. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 265, 1013 (1993)
Cappellari M., Emsellem, E., Krajnović, D., McDermid, R.M.; Scott, N., et al.: The ATLAS3D project - I. A volume-limited sample of 260 nearby early-type galaxies: science goals and selection criteria Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 413, 813 (2011)
Cappellari, M., Emsellem, E., Krajnović, D., McDermid, R.M., Serra, P., et al.: The ATLAS3D project - VII. A new look at the morphology of nearby galaxies: the kinematic morphology-density relation. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 416, 1680 (2011)
Cecil, G., Rose, J.A.: Constraints on galaxy structure and evolution from the light of nearby systems. Rep. Prog. Phys. 70, 1177 (2007)
Combes, F., Sanders, R.H.: Formation and properties of persisting stellar bars. Astron. Astrophys. 96, 164 (1981)
Conselice, C.J.: The relationship between stellar light distributions of galaxies and their formation histories. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 147, 1 (2003)
Conselice, C.J.: The fundamental properties of galaxies and a new galaxy classification system. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 373, 1389 (2006)
Cooper A. P., D’Souza, R., Kauffmann, G., Wang, J., Boylan-Kolchin, M., et al.: Galactic accretion and the outer structure of galaxies in the CDM model. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 434, 3348 (2013)
Cortesi, A., Merrifield, M.R., Coccato, L., Arnaboldi, M., Gerhard, O., et al.: Planetary nebula spectrograph survey of S0 galaxy kinematics - II. Clues to the origins of S0 galaxies. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 432, 1010 (2013)
de Vaucouleurs, G.: Classification and morphology of external galaxies. Handbuch der Physik. vol. 53, p. 275. Springer, Berlin (1959)
de Vaucouleurs, G., et al.: Third Reference Catalogue of Bright Galaxies, vols. I–III. Springer, New York (1991)
Disney, M.J.: Visibility of galaxies. Nature 263, 573 (1976)
Dressler, A.: Galaxy morphology in rich clusters - Implications for the formation and evolution of galaxies. Astrophys. J. 236, 351 (1980)
Dressler A., Sandage A.: Rotational velocities and central velocity dispersions for a sample of S0 galaxies. Astrophys. J. 265, 664 (1983)
Dressler A., Oemler, A., Jr., Butcher, H. R., Gunn, J. E.: The morphology of distant cluster galaxies. 1: HST observations of CL 0939+4713. Astrophys. J. 430, 107 (1994)
Duc P.-A., Paudel, S., McDermid, R.M., Cuillandre, J.-C., Serra, P., et al.: Identification of old tidal dwarfs near early-type galaxies from deep imaging and H I observations. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 440, 1458 (2014)
Duc, P.-A., Cuillandre, J.-C., Karabal, E., Cappellari, M., Alatalo, K., et al.: The ATLAS3D project - XXIX. The new look of early-type galaxies and surrounding fields disclosed by extremely deep optical images. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 446, 120 (2015).
Elbaz D., Dickinson, M., Hwang, H.S., Dìaz-Santos, T., Magdis, G., et al.: Astron. Astrophys. 533, A119 (2011)
Eliche-Moral, M., Gonzàlez-García, A.C., Aguerri, J.A.L., Gallego, J., Zamorano, J., et al.: Evolution along the sequence of S0 Hubble types induced by dry minor mergers. I. Global bulge-to-disk structural relations. Astron. Astrophys. 547, 48 (2012)
Elmegreen, D.M.: A near-infrared atlas of spiral galaxies. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 47, 229 (1981)
Elmegreen, D.M., Elmegreen, B.G.: Blue and near-infrared surface photometry of spiral structure in 34 nonbarred grand design and flocculent galaxies. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 54, 127 (1984)
Elmegreen, D.M., Elmegreen, B.G.: Arm classifications for spiral galaxies. Astrophys. J. 314, 3 (1987)
Emsellem, E., Cappellari, M., Krajnovic̀, D., Alatalo, K., Blitz, L., et al.: The ATLAS3D project - III. A census of the stellar angular momentum within the effective radius of early-type galaxies: unveiling the distribution of fast and slow rotators. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 414, 888 (2011)
Eskridge, P.B., Frogel, J.A., Pogge, R.W., Quillen, A.C., Davies, R.L., et al.: The frequency of barred spiral galaxies in the near-infrared. Astron. J. 119, 536 (2000)
Falcon-Barroso, J., Lyubenova M., van de Ven G.: Angular momentum across the Hubble sequence from the CALIFA survey. In: Cappellari, M., Courteau, S. (eds.) Galaxy Masses as Constrains of Formation Models, Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, IAU Symposium, vol. 311, pp. 78–81 (2015)
Feruglio, C., Maiolino, R., Piconcelli, E., Menci, N., Aussel, H., et al.: Quasar feedback revealed by giant molecular outflows Astron. Astrophys. 518, L155 (2010)
Fraix-Burnet, D., Dugué, M., Chattopadhyay, T., Chattopadhyay, A.K., Davoust E.: Structures in the fundamental plane of early-type galaxies. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 407, 2207 (2010)
Fraix-Burnet, D., Chattopadhyay, T., Chattopadhyay, A.K., Davoust, E., Thuillard, M.: A six-parameter space to describe galaxy diversification. Astron. Astrophys. 545, A80 (2012)
Gerola, H., Seiden, P.: Stochastic star formation and spiral structure of galaxies. Astrophys. J. 223, 129 (1978)
Hodge P.W.: Dwarf galaxies. Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 9, 35 (1971)
Hodge, P.W., Pyper, D.M., Webb, C.J.: Dwarf galaxies in the Fornax cluster. Astron. J. 70, 559 (1965)
Holmberg, E.: A photographic photometry of extragalactic nebulae. Lund. Medd. Astron. Obs. Ser. II. vol. 136, p.1 (1958)
Hubble, E.: A general study of diffuse galactic nebulæ. Astrophys. J. 56, 162 (1922)
Hubble, E.: Extragalactic nebulæ. Astrophys. J. 64, 321 (1926)
Hubble, E.: The classification of spiral nebulæ. Observatory. 50, 276 (1927)
Hubble, E.: The Realm of the Nebulæ. Yale University Press, New Haven (1936)
Ilyina, M., Sil’chenko, O., Afanasiev, V.: Nature of star-forming rings in S0 galaxies. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 439, 334 (2014)
Impey, C., Bothun, G.: Low surface brightness galaxies. Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 35, 267 (1997)
Karachentsev, I.D.: Distribution of Sculptor-type dwarf systems in the Virgo cluster of galaxies. Astrophysics. 1, 118 (1965)
Karachentseva, V.E.: Sculptor-type dwarfs in galactic clusters. Astrophysics. 3, 245 (1967)
Knox-Shaw, H.: Observations of nebuæ made during 1912-1914. Helwan Obs. Bull. 15, 129 (1915)
Kormendy, J.: Rotation of the bulge components of barred galaxies. Astrophys. J. 257, 75 (1982)
Kormendy J.: Families of ellipsoidal stellar systems and the formation of dwarf elliptical galaxies. Astrophys. J. 295, 73 (1985)
Kormendy, J., Bender, R.: A revised parallel-sequence morphological classification of galaxies: structure and formation of S0 and spheroidal salaxies.Astrophys. J. Suppl. 198, 2 (2012)
Kormendy, J., Illingworth, G.: Rotation of the bulge components of disk galaxies. Astrophys. J. 256, 460 (1982)
Kormendy, J., Norman, C.: Observational constraints on driving mechanisms for spiral density waves. Astrophys. J. 233, 539 (1979)
Laurikainen, E., Salo, H., Buta, R.: Multicomponent decompositions for a sample of S0 galaxies. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 362, 1319 (2005)
Laurikainen, E., et al.: Bars, ovals, and lenses in early-type disk galaxies: probes of galaxy evolution. Astrophys. J. 692, 34 (2009)
Laurikainen, E., Salo, H., Buta, R., Knapen, J.H., Comerón, S.: Photometric scaling relations of lenticular and spiral galaxies. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 405, 1089 (2010)
Laurikainen, E. Salo, H., Buta, R., Knapen J.H.: Near-infrared atlas of S0-Sa galaxies (NIRS0S). Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 418, 1452 (2011)
Laurikainen, E., Salo, H., Athanassoula, E., Bosma, A., Herrera-Endoqui, M.: Milky Way mass galaxies with X-shaped bulges are not rare in the local Universe. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 444, 80 (2014)
Lintott, C., Schawinski, K., Bamford, S., Slosar, A., Land, K., et al.: Galaxy Zoo 1: data release of morphological classifications for nearly 900 000 galaxies. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 410, 166 (2011)
Longo, G., Capaccioli, M., Busarello, G. (eds.): Morphological and physical classification of galaxies. In: Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop of the Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte. Astrophysics and Space Science Library, vol. 178. Springer, New York (1990)
Lotz, J., Primack, J., Madau, P.: A new nonparametric approach to galaxy morphological classification. Astron. J. 128, 163 (2004)
Lütticke, R., Dettmar, R., Pohlen, M.: Box- and peanut-shaped bulges. I. Statistics. Astron. Astrophys. Suppl. 145, 405 (2000)
Martinez-Delgado, D., Gabany, R.J., Crawford, K., Zibetti, S., Majewski, S.R., et al.: Stellar tidal streams in spiral galaxies of the local volume: a pilot survey with modest aperture telescopes. Astron. J. 140, 962 (2010)
Meidt, S.E., Schinnerer, E., Knapen, J.H., Bosma, A., Athanassoula, E., et al.: Reconstructing the stellar mass distributions of galaxies using S4G IRAC 3.6 and 4.5 μm images. I. Correcting for contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, hot dust, and intermediate-age stars. Astrophys. J. 744, 17 (2012)
Meidt, S.E., Schinnerer, E. van de Ven, G., Zaritsky, D., Peletier, R., et al.: Reconstructing the stellar mass distributions of galaxies using S4G IRAC 3.6 and 4.5 μm images. II. The conversion from light to mass. Astrophys. J. 788, 144 (2014)
Mirabel, I.F., Dottori, H., Lutz, D.: Genesis of a dwarf galaxy from the debris of the Antennae. Astron. Astrophys. 256, L19–L22 (1992)
Moffet, A., Kannappan, S.J., Baker, A.J., Laine, S.: Extended ultraviolet disks and ultraviolet-bright disks in low-mass E/S0 galaxies. Astrophys. J. 745, 34 (2012)
Morgan, W.W.: A preliminary classification of the forms of galaxies according to their stellar population. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 70, 364 (1958)
Odewahan, S.C., Cohen, S.H., Windhorst, R.A., Philip, N.S.: Automated galaxy morphology: a Fourier approach. Astrophys. J. 568, 539 (2002)
Phillipps, S., Disney, M., Kibblewhite, E., Cawson, M.: The surface brightness of 1550 galaxies in Fornax. II - Automated galaxy surface photometry. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 229, 505 (1987)
Querejeta, M., Meidt, S. E., Schinnerer, E., Cisternas, M., Muñoz-Mateos, J.C., et al.: The Spitzer survey of stellar structure in galaxies (S4G). The pipeline 5: high-precision stellar masses at 3.6 micron. astro-ph 1409.5126 (2014)
Rampazzo, R., Vega, O., Bressan, A., Clemens, M. S., Marino, A., Panuzzo, P.: A Spitzer-IRS view of early-type galaxies with cuspy/core nuclei and fast/slow rotation. Astron. Astrophys. 565, A50 (2014)
Reaves, G.: Dwarf galaxies in the Virgo cluster. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 74, 392 (1962)
Reynolds, J.H.: Photometric measures of the nuclei of some typical spiral nebulæ. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 80, 746 (1920)
Reynolds, J.H.: Nebulae. The condensation in the spiral. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 85, 142 (1924)
Reynolds, J.H.: The classification of the spiral nebulæ. Observatory. 50, 185 (1927)
Rix, H.-W., Rieke, M.J.: Tracing the stellar mass in M51. Astrophys. J. 418, 123 (1993)
Roberts, W.W. Jr., Roberts, M.S., Shu, F.H.: Density wave theory and the classification of spiral galaxies. Astrophys. J. 196, 381 (1975)
Sánchez Almeida, J., Aguerri, J.A.L., Muñoz-Tuñón, C., de Vicente, A.: Automatic unsupervised classification of all Sloan Digital Sky Survey data release 7 galaxy spectra. Astrophys. J. 714, 487 (2010)
Sandage, A.: The Hubble Atlas of Galaxies. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC (1961)
Sandage, A.: The calssification of galaxies: early history and ongoing developments. Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 43, 581–624 (2005)
Sandage, A., Bedke, J.: The Carnegie Atlas of Galaxies. Vols. I & II. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication, Washington, DC, 638 (1994)
Sandage, A., Binggeli, B.: Studies of the Virgo cluster. III - A classification system and an illustrated atlas of Virgo cluster dwarf galaxies. Astron. J. 89, 919 (1984)
Sandage, A. Tammann, G.A.: A Revised Shapley-Ames Catalog of Bright Galaxies. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication, Washington, DC, 635 (1981)
Sandage, A., Sandage, M., Kristian, J.: Galaxies and the Universe, Stars and Stellar Systems, vol. 9, University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1975)
Schweizer, F.: Photometric studies of spiral structure. I - The disks and arms of six SB I and SC I galaxies. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 31, 313 (1976)
Sellwood, J.A., Carlberg, R.G.: Transient spirals as superposed instabilities. Astrophys. J. 785, 137 (2014)
Serra, P., Oser, L., Krajnovic̀, D., Naab, T., Oosterloo, T., et al.: The ATLAS3D project - XXVI. H I discs in real and simulated fast and slow rotators. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 444, 3388 (2014)
Sheth, K., Regan, M., Hinz, J. L., Gil de Paz, A., Menéndez-Delmestre, K. al.: The Spitzer survey of stellar structure in galaxies (S4G). Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 122, 1397 (2010)
Sil’chenko, O.: Recent revolutions and unsolved problems in the galaxy evolution paradigm. Astron. Nachr. 334, 781 (2013)
Silk, J., Mamon, G.A.: The current status of galaxy formation. Research in Astron. Astrophys. 12, 917 (2012)
Simien, F., de Vaucouleurs, G.: Systematics of bulge-to-disk ratios. Astrophys. J. 302, 564 (1986)
Spitzer, L. Jr., Baade, W.: Stellar populations and collisions of galaxies. Astrophys. J. 113, 413 (1951)
Stoughton, C., et al.: Sloan Digital Sky Survey: early data release. Astron. J. 123, 485 (2002)
Sulentic, J.W., Tifft, W.G.: The Revised New General Catalogue of Nonstellar Astronomical Objects. University of Arizona Press, Tucson (1973)
Szomoru, D., Franx, M., van Dokkum, P.G.: Sizes and surface brightness profiles of quiescent galaxies at z\(\sim\) 2. Astrophys. J. 749, 121 (2012)
Thornley, M.: Uncovering spiral structure in flocculent galaxies. Astrophys. J. 469, l45 (1996)
Tolstoy, E., Hill, V., Tosi, M.: Star-formation histories, abundances, and kinematics of dwarf galaxies in the local group. Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 47, 371 (2009)
Tsikoudi, V.: Photometry and structure of lenticular galaxies. II - NGC 4111 and NGC 4762. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 43, 365 (1980)
van den Bergh, S.: A Catalogue of Dwarf Galaxies. Publications of the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto. vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 147–150. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada (1959)
van den Bergh, S.: The luminosity classification of galaxies. Astron. J. 64, 347 (1959)
van den Bergh, S.: A new classification system for galaxies. Astrophys. J. 206, 883 (1976)
van den Bergh, S.: Some musings on galaxy classification. Astron. J. 113, 2054 (1997)
van den Bergh, S.: Galaxy Morphology and Classification. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1998)
Van Dokkum, P.G., Leja, J., Nelson, E.J., Patel, S., Skelton, R.E., et al.: The assembly of Milky-Way-like galaxies since z\(\sim\) 2.5. Astrophys. J. 771, 35 (2013)
Van Dokkum, P.G., Abraham, R., Merritt, A.: First results from the dragonfly telephoto array: the apparent lack of a stellar halo in the massive spiral galaxy M 101 Astropys. J. Lett. 782, L24 (2014)
Vorontsov-Vel’Yaminov, B., Arkhipova, V.P.: Morphological Catalogue of Galaxies, Part I (1962)
Watanabe, M., Kodaira, K., Okamura S.: Digital surface photometry of galaxies toward a quantitative classification. IV - Principal component analysis of surface-photometric parameters. Astrophys. J. 292, 72 (1985)
Weinzirl, T., et al.: Bulge n and B/T in high-mass galaxies: constraints on the origin of bulges in hierarchical models. Astrophys. J. 696, 411–447 (2009)
Welch, G.: Galaxy Morphology and Classification. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1998); J. R. Astron. Soc. Can. 93, 201 (1999)
Whitmore, B.C.: An objective classification system for spiral galaxies. I The two dominant dimensions. Astrophys. J. 278, 61 (1984)
Wolf, M.: Die Klassifizierung der kleinen Nebelflecken. Publik. Astrophys. Inst. Koenigstuhl Heidelberg, 3, 109 (1908)
Woltjer, L.: Dynamics of gas and magnetic fields; spiral structure. In: A. Blaauw, M. Schmidt (eds.) Galactic Structure. p. 531. University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1965)
Wray, J.D.: The Color Atlas of Galaxies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1988)
Young, L.M., Bureau, M., Davis, T.A., Combes, F., McDermid, R.M., et al.: The ATLAS3D project - IV. The molecular gas content of early-type galaxies. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 414, 940 (2011)
Zaritsky, D., Rix, H.-W., Rieke, M.: Inner spiral structure of the galaxy M51. Nature 364, 313 (1993)
Zwicky, F.: Some novel features of the Whirlpool nebula as revealed by composite analytical photography. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 67, 232 (1955)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Rampazzo, R. et al. (2016). Family Traits of Galaxies: From the Tuning Fork to a Physical Classification in a Multi-Wavelength Context. In: D'Onofrio, M., Rampazzo, R., Zaggia, S. (eds) From the Realm of the Nebulae to Populations of Galaxies. Astrophysics and Space Science Library, vol 435. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31006-0_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31006-0_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-31004-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-31006-0
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)