Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Classroom-Oriented Research pp 19–37Cite as

Designing a Tool for Measuring the Interrelationships between L2 WTC, Confidence, Beliefs, Motivation, and Context

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Second Language Learning and Teaching ((SLLT))

Abstract

The study of language learners’ willingness to communicate (WTC) has gained momentum since 1998 when MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei, and Noels (1998) presented a conceptualization of an amalgam of psychological, linguistic, educational, and communicative dimensions of language whose interplay underlies a person’s wish to use the target language. The recognition of the importance of the concept as well as its potential to impinge on the outcomes of the learning process have generated a multitude of studies, especially in Chinese and Japanese contexts, which either attempt to test and verify MacIntyre et al.’s (1998) model or expand the array of factors that promote or hinder communication, both in the classroom and outside. The study reported in the present paper constitutes the first stage of a research project aimed to investigate the relationship between Polish learners’ in-class and out-of-class WTC in English and a number of individual and contextual variables which can be seen as its antecedents, such as communication confidence, learner beliefs, classroom environment, international posture, ideal L2 self, and ought-to L2 self. More specifically, it sought to establish the psychometric properties of eight scales that were adjusted to reflect the realities of the Polish educational context and the specificity of English instruction in foreign languages departments. Since the analysis provided evidence for high reliability of the scales and the entire tool, a decision was made to retain all the original items so that they could be further verified by means of factor analysis in subsequent studies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Asker, B. (1998). Student reticence and oral testing: A Hong Kong study of willingness to communicate. Communication Research Reports, 15, 162–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, S., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2000). The role of gender and immersion in communication and second language orientations. Language Learning, 50, 311–341.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cao, Y. (2011). Investigating situational willingness to communicate within second language classrooms from an ecological perspective. System, 39, 468–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cao, Y. (2013). Exploring dynamism in willingness to communicate: A longitudinal case study. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 36, 160–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cao, Y., & Philip, J. (2006). Interactional context and willingness to communicate: A comparison of behavior in whole class, group and dyadic interaction. System, 34, 480–493.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, B. M., & McCroskey, J. C. (1987). The WTC scale as a predictor of classroom participation. Communication Research Reports, 4, 47–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clément, R., Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2003). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The effects of context, norms, and vitality. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 22, 190–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Csizér, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (2005). Language learners’ motivational profiles and their motivated learning behavior. Language Learning, 55, 613–659.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeKeyser, R. (2007). Skill acquisition theory. In J. Williams & B. VanPatten (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 97–113). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dörnyei, Z. (2010). Questionnaires in second language research: Construction, administration, and processing (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dörnyei, Z., & Clément, R. (2001). Motivational characteristics of learning different target languages: Results of a nationwide survey. In Z. Dörnyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition (pp. 399–432). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dörnyei, Z., & Csizér, K. (2002). Some dynamics of language attitudes and motivation: Results of a longitudinal nationwide survey. Applied Linguistics, 23, 421–462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dörnyei, Z., Csizér, K., & Németh, N. (2006). Motivation, language attitudes and globalisation: A Hungarian perspective. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, B. J., Fisher, D. L., & McRobbie, C. J. (1996). Development, validation, and use of personal and class forms of a new classroom environment instrument. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghonsooly, B., Khajavy, G. H., & Asadpour, S. F. (2012). Willingness to communicate in English among Iranian non-English major university students. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 31, 197–212. doi:10.1177/0261927X12438538.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hashimoto, Y. (2002). Motivation and willingness to communicate as predictors of reported L2 use. Second Language Studies, 20, 29–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. Modern Language Journal, 70, 125–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kang, S. (2005). Dynamic emergence of situational willingness to communicate in a second language. System, 33, 277–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lantolf, J. P. (2006). Sociocultural theory and L2: State of the art. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28, 67–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of research on second language acquisition (pp. 413–468). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, P. D. (1994). Variables underlying willingness to communicate: A causal analysis. Communication Research Reports, 11, 135–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, P. D. (2007). Willingness to communicate in the second language: Understanding the decision to speak as a volitional process. Modern Language Journal, 91, 564–576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clément, R., & Donovan, L. A. (2002). Sex and age effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning, 52, 537–564.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clément, R., & Donovan, L. A. (2003). Talking in order to learn: Willingness to communicate and intensive language programs. Canadian Modern Language Review, 59, 589–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clément, R., & Conrod, S. (2001). Willingness to communicate, social support, and language-learning orientations of immersion students. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23, 369–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, P. D., Burns, C., & Jessome, A. (2011). Ambivalence about communicating in a second language: A qualitative study of French immersion students’ willingness to communicate. The Modern Language Journal, 95, 81–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, P. D., & Charos, C. (1996). Personality, attitudes, and affect as predictors of second language communication. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 15, 3–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. Modern Language Journal, 82, 545–562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, P. D., & Legatto, J. J. (2011). A dynamic system approach to willingness to communicate: Developing an idiodynamic method to capture rapidly changing affect. Applied Linguistics, 32, 149–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCroskey, J. C. (1992). Reliability and validity of the willingness to communicate scale. Communication Quarterly, 40, 16–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCroskey, J. C., & Baer, J. E. (1985). Willingness to communicate. The construct and its measurement. Paper presented at the annual convention of the Speech Communication Association, Denver, CO.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (1987). Willingness to communicate. In J. C. McCroskey & J. A.Daly (Eds.), Personality and interpersonal communication (pp. 129–156). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (1992). Increasing teacher influence through immediacy. In V. P. Richmond & J. C. McCroskey (Eds.), Power in the classroom: communication, control, and concern (pp. 101–119). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A., & Pawlak, M. (2014). Fluctuations in learners’ willingness to communicate during communicative task performance: Conditions and tendencies. Research in Language, 12, 245–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pawlak, M. (2014). Error correction in the foreign language classroom: Reconsidering the issues. Heidelberg, New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peng, J. (2007). Willingness to communicate in the Chinese EFL classroom: A cultural perspective. In J. Liu (Ed.), English language teaching in China: New approaches, perspectives, and standards (pp. 250–269). London: Continuum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peng, J. E. (2013). The challenge of measuring willingness to communicate in EFL contexts. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 22, 281–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peng, J. E. (2014). Willingness to communicate inside the EFL classroom: An ecological perspective. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peng, J. E., & Woodrow, L. J. (2010). Willingness to communicate in English: A model in the Chinese EFL classroom context. Language Learning, 60, 834–876.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, S. (2009). Self and identity in L2 motivation in Japan: The ideal L2 self and Japanese learners of English. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 120–143). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sakui, K., & Gaies, S. J. (1999). Investigating Japanese learners’ beliefs about language learning. System, 27, 473–492.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swain, M. (2000). The output hypothesis and beyond: Mediating acquisition through collaborative dialogue. In P. J. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning (pp. 97–114). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, C. (2005). Using the Rasch model to develop a measure of second language learners’ willingness to communicate within a language classroom. Journal of Applied Measurement, 6, 396–415.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodrow, L. J. (2006). Anxiety and speaking English as a second language English language speaking anxiety in a second language environment. RELC Journal, 37, 308–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The Japanese EFL context. Modern Language Journal, 86, 54–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yashima, T. (2009). International posture and the ideal L2 self in the Japanese EFL context. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 144–192). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yashima, T., Zenuk-Nishide, L., & Shimizu, K. (2004). The influence of attitudes and affect on willingness to communicate and second language communication. Language Learning, 54, 119–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zakahi, W. R., & McCroskey, J. C. (1989). Willingness to communicate: A potential confounding variable in communication research. Communication Reports, 96–104.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Adam Mickiewicz University, Kalisz, Poland

    Anna Mystkowska-Wiertelak & Mirosław Pawlak

  2. State University of Applied Sciences, Konin, Poland

    Anna Mystkowska-Wiertelak & Mirosław Pawlak

Authors
  1. Anna Mystkowska-Wiertelak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mirosław Pawlak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Anna Mystkowska-Wiertelak .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Zakład Filologii Angielskiej, Adam Mickiewicz University, Kalisz, Wielkopolskie, Poland

    Mirosław Pawlak

Appendices

Appendix: Questionnaire

The following statements describe tasks or situations inside a speaking class and outside the classroom. Please choose the box which best describes your feelings: 1 Not at all true about me, 2 Very slightly true of me, 3 Slightly true of me, 4 Moderately true of me, 5 Very much true of me, 6 Extremely true about me.

Part I: WTC During a Speaking Class

  1. 1.

    I am willing to present my arguments to the rest of my class.

  2. 2.

    I am willing to give a presentation in front of the class.

  3. 3.

    I am willing to do a role-play in a small group.

  4. 4.

    I am willing to do a role-play in a pair.

  5. 5.

    I am willing to take part in a discussion in a small group.

  6. 6.

    I am willing to take part in a discussion in a pair.

  7. 7.

    I am willing to ask the teacher in English to repeat what s/he said.

  8. 8.

    I am willing to ask the teacher in English about words or structures s/he just used.

  9. 9.

    I am willing to ask my peer in English about forms/words related to the topic.

  10. 10.

    I am willing to ask my peer in English about ideas/arguments related to the topic.

  11. 11.

    I am willing to ask my group mates in English about forms/words related to the topic.

  12. 12.

    I am willing to ask my group mates in English about ideas/arguments related to the topic.

  13. 13.

    I am willing to correct a mistake that I notice in what others are saying.

  14. 14.

    I am willing to modify what I have said in response to an indication of an error.

Part II: WTC Outside the Classroom

  1. 1.

    I am willing to use computer mediated communication (CMC) to address an acquaintance of mine.

  2. 2.

    I am willing to use CMC to address a group of my acquaintances.

  3. 3.

    I am willing to use CMC to address my acquaintances as well as strangers.

  4. 4.

    I am willing to use CMC to address whoever is interested in what I want to communicate.

  5. 5.

    I am willing to initiate communication with a foreigner met in the street.

  6. 6.

    I am willing to speak to a foreigner who needs assistance (e.g., help find directions).

  7. 7.

    I am willing to initiate communication with a group of foreigners met in the street.

  8. 8.

    I am willing to speak to a group of foreigners who need assistance.

  9. 9.

    I am willing to speak to a foreign teacher in a private situation (e.g., in a cafeteria).

  10. 10.

    I am willing to use English to speak to/text my Polish friend out of class (during breaks).

  11. 11.

    I am willing to use English to speak to/text my Polish peers out of class.

  12. 12.

    I am willing to speak to exchange students enrolled in my program.

Part III: Communication Confidence

  1. 1.

    I am willing to give an oral presentation to the rest of the class.

  2. 2.

    I am willing to take part in a role-play or dialogue.

  3. 3.

    I am willing to contribute to a class debate.

  4. 4.

    I am willing to respond when the teacher asks me a question in English.

  5. 5.

    I am willing to speak without preparation in class.

  6. 6.

    I am willing to speak informally to my English teacher during classroom activities.

  7. 7.

    I am willing to give my peer sitting next to me directions to my favourite restaurant in English.

  8. 8.

    I am willing to do a role-play in English at my desk, with my peer.

  9. 9.

    I am willing to tell my group mates in English about things I do in my free time.

  10. 10.

    I am willing to give a short impromptu speech to my class.

  11. 11.

    I am willing to correct a mistake that I notice in what others are saying.

  12. 12.

    I am willing to modify what I have said in response to an indication of an error.

  13. 13.

    I am willing to lead the discussion.

Part IV: Learner Beliefs

  1. 1.

    You should try to speak English even if you know you might not speak it correctly.

  2. 2.

    Students should speak even if they are not invited by the teacher.

  3. 3.

    I think I learn a lot by participating in communicative activities.

  4. 4.

    The communicative activities designed by the teacher help me improve my English.

  5. 5.

    Students who speak a lot in classes achieve a higher level of proficiency.

  6. 6.

    Pair and small group discussions are better than whole-class debates.

  7. 7.

    In speaking classes everyone should speak English only.

  8. 8.

    Teachers should insist on the use of English only in speaking classes.

  9. 9.

    Learning a foreign language is learning to communicate.

  10. 10.

    I should be given an opportunity to correct myself when I make an error.

Part V: Classroom Environment

  1. 1.

    Tasks designed in this class are useful.

  2. 2.

    Tasks designed in this class are attractive.

  3. 3.

    I know what I am trying to accomplish in this class.

  4. 4.

    Activities in this class are clearly and carefully planned.

  5. 5.

    Class assignments are clear so everyone knows what to do.

  6. 6.

    I work well with other class members.

  7. 7.

    I am friendly to members of this class.

  8. 8.

    I make friends among students in this class.

  9. 9.

    I help other class members who are having trouble with their work.

  10. 10.

    The teacher provides a timely response to students’ concerns.

  11. 11.

    The teacher is patient in teaching.

  12. 12.

    The teacher smiles at the class while talking.

  13. 13.

    The teacher asks questions that solicit viewpoints or opinions.

Part VI: International Posture

  1. 1.

    I want to make friends with people from abroad whom I meet in the internet or at school.

  2. 2.

    I try to use every opportunity to speak to a foreigner in English, online or in reality.

  3. 3.

    I would talk to an international student if there was one at school.

  4. 4.

    I would share a flat or a room with an international student.

  5. 5.

    I would like to participate in a volunteer activity to help foreigners living in my community.

  6. 6.

    I wouldn’t feel uncomfortable if a foreigner moved in next door.

  7. 1.

    I would rather stay in my hometown.

  8. 2.

    I want to work in a foreign country.

  9. 3.

    I want to work in an international organisation or company.

  10. 4.

    I’m interested in an international career.

  11. 5.

    Things that happen in other countries don’t affect my life.

  12. 6.

    I’d rather avoid the work that requires frequent travelling abroad.

  13. 1.

    I often read and watch news, short films, clips?? about life/events in foreign countries.

  14. 2.

    I often talk about situations and events (sports events, concerts, festivals etc.) in foreign countries with my family and friends.

  15. 3.

    I have a strong interest in what happens in other countries.

  16. 4.

    In the Internet, TV or papers I only look for information concerning my hometown or my country.

  17. 1.

    There are topics I want to present or discuss with people from other countries.

  18. 2.

    I sometimes feel member of an international community of people who want to share ideas and opinions.

  19. 3.

    I have ideas about international issues such as sports, cultural, social, political or economic events or phenomena.

  20. 4.

    I have no clear opinions about international issues.

Part VII: Ideal L2 Self

  1. 1.

    I can imagine myself living abroad and having a discussion in English.

  2. 2.

    I can imagine myself studying in a university where all my courses are taught in English.

  3. 3.

    Whenever I think about my future career, I imagine myself using English.

  4. 4.

    I can imagine a situation where I am speaking English with foreigners.

  5. 5.

    I can imagine myself speaking English with international friends or colleagues.

  6. 6.

    I can imagine myself living abroad and using English effectively for communicating with the locals.

  7. 7.

    I can imagine myself speaking English as if I were a native speaker of English.

  8. 8.

    I imagine myself as someone who is able to speak English.

  9. 9.

    I can imagine myself writing English e-mails/letters/blog fluently.

  10. 10.

    The things I want to do in the future require me to use English.

Part VIII: Ought-to L2 Self

  1. 1.

    I study English because close friends of mine think it is important.

  2. 2.

    Learning English is necessary because people surrounding me expect me to do so.

  3. 3.

    I consider learning English important because the people I respect think I should do it.

  4. 4.

    If I fail to learn English I’ll be letting other people down.

  5. 5.

    Studying English is important to me in order to gain the approval of my peers/teachers/family/boss.

  6. 6.

    I have to study English, because, if I do not study it, I think my parents will be disappointed with me.

  7. 7.

    My parents believe that I must study English to be an educated person.

  8. 8.

    Studying English is important to me because an educated person is supposed to be able to speak English.

  9. 9.

    Studying English is important to me because other people will respect me more if I have a knowledge of English.

  10. 10.

    It will have a negative impact on my life if I don’t learn English.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A., Pawlak, M. (2016). Designing a Tool for Measuring the Interrelationships between L2 WTC, Confidence, Beliefs, Motivation, and Context. In: Pawlak, M. (eds) Classroom-Oriented Research. Second Language Learning and Teaching. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30373-4_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30373-4_2

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-30371-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-30373-4

  • eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation