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Public Support Schemes for the Deployment of Commercial Plants

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The Economics and Policy of Solar Photovoltaic Generation

Part of the book series: Green Energy and Technology ((GREEN))

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Abstract

The determinants to the deployment of renewable energy technologies in general and solar PV in particular are multifaceted. They include technoeconomic factors (e.g. resource potentials and investment and variable costs), legal and administrative barriers, political factors, social acceptability and other factors (e.g. subsidies and other advantages to fossil fuels, lack of information, human capital factors and the role of pioneers) (del Río in Renew Sustain Energy Rev 15(5):2520–2533, 2011). However, public policies have been a critical driver in this context. In fact, solar PV has been, and to large extent still is, policy-driven. Relevant aspects with respect to support for solar PV include framework conditions, instruments, design elements within the instruments and the stability of support.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The project was funded under the Intelligent Energy–Europe, ALTENER (Grant Agreement no. IEE/10/437/SI2.589880). See www.res-policy-beyond2020.eu for further details.

  2. 2.

    Land should be understood in the sense of Ricardo, that is, as the area in which the generation activity takes place and, especially in our case, where incident sunlight strikes. The use of a given area of land is not free.

  3. 3.

    Intensive differential rents appear when PV farms with different technologies coexist in a given region (i.e. for the same level of solar radiation).

  4. 4.

    Windfall profits should not be confused with differential rents. Windfall profits are a type of quasi-rent in spot markets which stem from the use of different technologies to continuously cover a changing demand. Windfall profits can only be eliminated by specific taxes.

  5. 5.

    For comparative purposes: the cost of nuclear fuel represents around 15 % of total generation costs, 40 % if coal is burnt and 75 % in the case of gas. The prices of fossil fuels indirectly affect the solar PV sector through their impact on module manufacturing.

  6. 6.

    The financial flows corresponding to support through FITs (and FIPs) are not part of public budgets, with some exceptions (Mendonça et al. 2010: 61). Although taxpayers and ratepayers include virtually the same people (in fact most society), support for RES is usually not part of fiscal policy.

  7. 7.

    A specific firm is created as the project developer and is empowered to build the installation. This firm operates with a high level of debt with respect to its own resources (equity). The fact that the FIT is known and guaranteed facilitates the calculation of the coverage ratio, i.e. the capacity of the plant to obtain a net cash flow which is high enough to cover the debt service if unexpected events occur (in the case of solar PV, these may involve, for example, a year with lower solar radiation levels or the premature ageing of some panels).

  8. 8.

    The term responsive degression instead of flexible degression is used in Couture et al. (2010: 40–41).

  9. 9.

    Whereas in 2004 only 2.5 % of wind onshore generators preferred remuneration through FITs, the increase in the electricity price led 96 % of them to abandon the FIT (Schallenberg-Rodríguez and Haas 2012: 298).

  10. 10.

    There also is the possibility that the cap becomes the maximum remuneration level. In other words, if the wholesale price is above the upper limit, the FIP would be negative: w > L C , then p T  = L C rather than p T  = w and, thus, −λ = L C  − p T . This is the case under contract-for-differences (sliding premiums).

  11. 11.

    The wholesale price plus the distribution margin is not equal to the retail price, since this one also includes the costs of TGCs.

  12. 12.

    According to Hogerdorn and Kleindorfer (2008: 170 and 181), this idea was first conceived in the US company Enron. Its design was inspired in the emissions cap and tradable permits market proposed in the late 1960s (Jaccard 2005: 285–285).

  13. 13.

    Sweden represents a case of relative success in the use of TGCs for the promotion of RES, although others attribute such success to the influence of its generous subsidy system and the fiscal rebates (Weight and Leuthold 2010: 486; Haas et al. 2011c: 2191). The scheme has also been criticized as a rent generation machine (Bergek and Jacobsson 2010).

  14. 14.

    According to those Guidelines, small renewable energy installations are those with an installed electricity capacity of less than 1 MW. The threshold for wind plants is 6 MW.

  15. 15.

    However, the Japanese solar PV market remained stagnant in 2005 with the end of subsidies and sunk in 2007. Furthermore, Sharp, the leading manufacturer then, had difficulties due to the higher silicon prices.

  16. 16.

    The foreign solar PV panel manufacturers complained about the barriers they encountered to access the Japanese market (Haller and Grupp 2009).

  17. 17.

    Solar PV research was undertaken since 1981 in the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy, located in Freiburg. The experimental plants built in the 1980s reached 1.5 MW.

  18. 18.

    The Swiss city of Burgdorf agreed to increase the electricity bill with an additional 1 % in order to promote the installation of solar PV panels in buildings. The local electric utility was committed to pay ¢$70/kWh for 12 years. However, barely 170 systems were installed during the five years when support was in force. This experience is arguably the first one of promotions through FITs. In the following year, the same approach was applied in Aachen, although the municipal distribution company rejected it. Two years later, 25 German cities had a total installed capacity of 2 MW supported through FITs (Johnstone 2011: 169–175; Scheer 2011: XXIV).

  19. 19.

    This law was also initially supported by Hermann Scheer and the deputy Hans-Josef Fell. Scheer is recognized for its support in favour of solar PV generation. It contributed in 1988 to the foundation of the NGO European Solar Energy Union (Eurosolar) and, years later, to IRENA (the International Renewable Energy Agency).

  20. 20.

    This mechanism of gradual reduction of the FIT for new plants tried to link the remuneration to the expected reduction of the cost of solar PV equipment. Its aim was thus to avoid excessive promotion costs (given the acceleration in the rate of installation of new capacity which is triggered by an excessive profitability level).

  21. 21.

    Ten years later, Siemens built the 5 MW plant in the roof of the pavilion of the Munich fair. However, Siemens sold its solar division to Shell in 2001.

  22. 22.

    These included the RES-E purchase obligation for the utilities and the option for RES-E generators to opt for either a premium on top of the electricity price or a tariff for the whole amount of RES-E fed into the grid. It should be pointed out that PV generators up to 50 MW were required to opt for the FITs.

  23. 23.

    For example, when assessing a draft of the new FIT in 2007, the National Energy Commission claimed that only four criteria were relevant in this regard: effectiveness (achieving the renewable electricity targets), minimizing regulatory uncertainty, facilitating the operation of the electricity system and encouraging the participation of renewable electricity in the electricity market. Costs were not mentioned in this 116-page report (CNE 2007).

  24. 24.

    Of this increase, 80 % (2153 MW) was due to the increase in capacity deployed by installations with capacity lower than 100 kW, although most of these plants were huertos solares (literally “solar orchards”), that is, large plants gathering together installations just below 100 kW, each with its owner. The rest (20 %, or 550 MW) took place in the segment from 100 kW to 10 MW, which is precisely the one which experienced the largest increase in remuneration (from €0.23 to €0.42/MWh).

  25. 25.

    The regulator estimated that the internal rate of return would be on the range of 5–9 %. However, internal rates of return of between 10 and 15 % (and even more) seemed to be common. This was also due to a greater number of high-quality radiation hours than expected, as well as to other circumstances (del Río and Mir-Artigues 2012, 2014a; Mir 2012: 439; Mir-Artigues et al. 2015).

  26. 26.

    According to data published in http://www.unef.es.

  27. 27.

    In 2006, there were 50–55 thousand direct jobs in the EU solar PV sector. Of these, 6300 were located in Spain (and about 35 thousand in Germany) (Jäger-Waldau 2007: 82–83). Two years later, there were 27,963 direct and indirect jobs in the solar PV sector in Spain. In 2014, this figure was estimated at 9944 (APPA 2015: 95).

  28. 28.

    Unless otherwise stated, all the data in these paragraphs are from the Web of the Italian regulator (http://www.gse.it).

  29. 29.

    This policy led the Chinese firm Sun Energy to assemble its panels in France. Ontario was the pioneer in requiring local content in solar PV equipment. This induced Trina Solar to sign an original equipment manufacturer agreement in order to have its panels assembled by a local firm.

  30. 30.

    An effort to increase national p-Si production was being made. Even so, the domestic production in 2011 could only cover 13 out of the 21.3 GW manufactured (Li et al. 2013: 1287–1288).

  31. 31.

    As argued in IEA (2014), the supply curve is relatively flat, reflecting considerable potential at a given cost. At any time, the incentive risks are either too high—driving more investment than desired—or too low, attracting much less investment than desired. Excessive remuneration and/or too rapid deployment has significantly impacted end-user electricity tariffs.

  32. 32.

    Note that auctions can be combined with other instruments. For example, instead of setting the support levels administratively in FITs or FIPs, an auction can be used to set such support.

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  1. Energy Sustainability Research Group, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

    Pere Mir-Artigues

  2. National Research Council of Spain (CSIC), Madrid, Spain

    Pablo del Río

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Mir-Artigues, P., del Río, P. (2016). Public Support Schemes for the Deployment of Commercial Plants. In: The Economics and Policy of Solar Photovoltaic Generation. Green Energy and Technology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29653-1_8

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29653-1_8

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