Skip to main content

Queering the Gender Binary: Understanding Transgender Workplace Experiences

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Sexual Orientation and Transgender Issues in Organizations

Abstract

While the popular acronym “LGBT” suggests that sexuality-based discrimination and gender-based discrimination are similar in nature, transgender employees face unique challenges in comparison to lesbian, gay and bisexual employees. This chapter outlines existing research pertaining to the status of transgender employees at work, in order to determine appropriate next steps for increasing efforts for transgender equality, both for researchers and practitioners. In order to achieve this goal, this chapter first seeks to highlight the most recent statistics on transgender discrimination, both in society and at work. Then, possible interventions that organizations might put in place to support transgender employees are suggested. Finally, a set of research recommendations are made in order to advance our knowledge about transgender employees in general and to further support workplace interventions for transgender equality. Overall, this chapter provides a comprehensive review of the existing transgender workplace literature and creates suggestions for extending and enhancing this research, in order to best support transgender employees in the workplace.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 229.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adams, G. A., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (1996). Relationships of job and family involvement, family social support, and work–family conflict with job and life satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 411–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Civil Liberties Union. (2013). Know your rights—Transgender people and the law. Accessed March 21, 2015, from https://www.aclu.org/lgbt-rights/know-your-rights-transgender-people-and-law

  • Anderson, M. Z., Croteau, J. M., Chung, Y. B., & DiStefano, T. M. (2001). Developing an assessment of sexual identity management for lesbian and gay workers. Journal of Career Assessment, 9, 243–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Averill, J. R. (1973). Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 286–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Badgett, M. V., Lau, H., Sears, B., & Ho, D. (2007). Bias in the workplace: Consistent evidence of sexual orientation and gender identity discrimination. Los Angeles, CA: The Williams Institute, University of California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauerband, L. A., & Galupo, M. P. (2014). The gender identity reflection and rumination scale: Development and psychometric evaluation. Journal of Counseling and Development, 92, 219–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beehr, T. A., & Bhagat, R. S. (1985). Introduction to human stress and cognition in organizations. Human Stress and Cognition in Organizations, 3, 19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolger, N., & Laurenceau, J. P. (2013). Intensive longitudinal methods: An introduction to diary and experience sampling research. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewster, M. E., Velez, B., DeBlaere, C., & Moradi, B. (2012). Transgender individuals’ workplace experiences: The applicability of sexual minority measures and models. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59, 60–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Budge, S. L., Tebbe, E. N., & Howard, K. A. S. (2010). The work experiences of transgender individuals: Negotiating the transition and career decision-making processes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 377–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Button, S. B. (2004). Identity management strategies utilized by lesbian and gay employees: A quantitative investigation. Group and Organization Management, 29, 470–494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Catalyst. (2013). Catalyst quick take: Women’s earnings and income. New York, NY: Catalyst.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chan, M. E., & McAllister, D. J. (2014). Abusive supervision through the lens of employee state paranoia. Academy of Management Review, 39, 44–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clair, J. A., Beatty, J. E., & MacLean, T. L. (2005). Out of sight but not out of mind: Managing invisible social identities in the workplace. Academy of Management Review, 30, 78–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clements-Nolle, K., Marx, R., & Katz, M. (2006). Attempted suicide among transgender persons: The influence of gender-based discrimination and victimization. Journal of Homosexuality, 51, 53–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cochran, B. N., Stewart, A. J., Ginzler, J. A., & Cauce, A. M. (2002). Challenges faced by homeless sexual minorities: Comparison of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender homeless adolescents with their heterosexual counterparts. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 773–777.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connell, C. (2010). Doing, undoing, or redoing gender? Learning from the workplace experiences of transpeople. Gender and Society, 24, 31–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cortina, L. M. (2008). Unseen injustice: Incivility as modern discrimination in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 33, 55–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cortina, L. M., Magley, V. J., Williams, J. H., & Langhout, R. D. (2001). Incivility in the workplace: Incidence and impact. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6, 64–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coyne, J. C., & Gotlib, I. H. (1983). The role of cognition in depression: A critical appraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 94, 472–505.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989, 139–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, E. C. (2009). Situating “fluidity”(trans) gender identification and the regulation of gender diversity. GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies, 15, 97–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Devor, A. H. (2004). Witnessing and mirroring: A fourteen stage model of transsexual identity formation. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Psychotherapy, 8, 41–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, J. R., & Smith, R. A. (2004). Race, gender, and workplace power. American Sociological Review, 69, 365–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, A. L., & Riggle, E. D. (1996). The relation of job satisfaction and degree of openness about one’s sexual orientation for lesbians and gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 30, 75–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2013). European Union for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender survey, results at a glance. Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/eu-lgbt-survey-results-at-a-glance_en.pdf

  • Factor, R. J., & Rothblum, E. D. (2008). A study of transgender adults and their non-transgender siblings on demographic characteristics, social support, and experiences of violence. Journal of LGBT Health Research, 3, 11–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fagan, J. F., & Shepherd, P. A. (1982). Theoretical issues in the early development of visual perception. In M. Lewis & L. Taft (Eds.), Developmental disabilities: Theory, assessment and intervention. New York, NY: S. P. Medical and Scientific Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagan, J. E., & Singer, L. T. (1979). The role of single feature differences in infant recognition of faces. Infant Behavior and Development, 2, 39–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fassinger, R. E., & Arseneau, J. R. (2007). “I’d rather get wet than be under that umbrella”: Differentiating the experiences and identities of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people. In K. J. Bieschke, R. M. Perez, & K. A. DeBord (Eds.), Handbook of counseling and psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender clients (2nd ed., pp. 19–49). Washington, DC: APA.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L. (1962). A theory of cognitive dissonance (Vol. 2). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, S. T., Bersoff, D. N., Borgida, E., Deaux, K., & Heilman, M. E. (1991). Social science research on trial: Use of sex stereotyping research in Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins. American Psychologist, 46, 1049–1060.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frable, D. E., Blackstone, T., & Scherbaum, C. (1990). Marginal and mindful: Deviants in social interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 140–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, D., Pugh, K., Antley, A., Slater, M., Bebbington, P., Gittins, M., & Garety, P. (2008). Virtual reality study of paranoid thinking in the general population. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 192, 258–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gates, G. (2011). How many people are lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender? The Williams Institute, UCLA Law School. Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Gates-How-Many-People-LGBT-Apr-2011.pdf

  • Goldman, B. M., & Kernis, M. H. (2002). The role of authenticity in healthy psychological functioning and subjective well-being. Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association, 5, 18–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, J. A., Mottet, L. A., Tanis, J., Harrison, J., Herman, J. L., & Kiesling, M. (2008). Injustice at every turn: A report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey. Retrieved from http://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/resources/NTDS_Exec_Summary.pdf

  • Griffin, P. (1992). From hiding out to coming out: Empowering lesbian and gay educators. Journal of Homosexuality, 22, 167–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, A. H., & D’Augelli, A. R. (2007). Transgender youth and life-threatening behaviors. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 37, 527–537.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haveman, H. A., & Beresford, L. S. (2011). If you’re so smart, why aren’t you the boss? Explaining the persistent vertical gender gap in management. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 639, 114–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heller, M. (2006). More employers broadening nondiscrimination policies to include transgender workers. Workforce Management, 85, 62–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hendricks, M. L., & Testa, R. J. (2012). A conceptual framework for clinical work with transgender and gender nonconforming clients: An adaptation of the minority stress model. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43, 460–467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hogg, M. A. (2001). Self-categorization and subjective uncertainty resolution: Cognitive and motivational facets of social identity and group membership. In J. P. Forgas, K. D. Williams, & L. Wheeler (Eds.), The social mind: Cognitive and motivational aspects of interpersonal behavior (pp. 323–349). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Human Rights Campaign (2008). Transgender inclusion in the workplace (2nd ed.). Retrieved February 19, 2016 from http://www.fs.fed.us/cr/HRC_Foundation_-_Transgender_Inclusion_in_the_Workplace_2nd_Edition_-_2008.pdf

  • Human Rights Campaign. (2014). Corporate equality index 2015. Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://hrc-assets.s3-website-us-east-1.amazonaws.com//files/documents/CEI-2015rev.pdf#__utma = 149406063.824689562.1426638163.1426645485.1426908860.4&__utmb = 149406063.2.10.1426908860&__utmc = 149406063&__utmx = &__utmz = 149406063.1426908860.4.4.utmcsr = google|utmccn = (organic)|utmcmd = organic| utmctr = (not%20provided)&__utmv = −&__utmk = 233756318

  • Human Rights Campaign. (2015a). Transgender people and marriage: The importance of legal planning. Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://www.hrc.org/resources/entry/transgender-people-and-marriage-the-importance-of-legal-planning

  • Human Rights Campaign. (2015b). International law protecting transgender workers. Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://www.hrc.org/resources/entry/international-laws-protecting-transgender-workers

  • Human Rights Campaign. (2015c). Restroom access for transgender employees. Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://www.hrc.org/resources/entry/restroom-access-for-transgender-employees

  • Irwin, J. (2002). Discrimination against gay men, lesbians, and transgender people working in education. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 14, 65–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacklin, C. N., DiPietro, J. A., & Maccoby, E. E. (1984). Sex-typing behavior and sex-typing pressure in parent–child interaction. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 13, 413–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanter, R. M. (1977). Some effects of proportions on group life: Skewed sex ratios and responses to token women. American Journal of Sociology, 82, 965–990.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kernis, M. H. (2003). Toward a conceptualization of optimal self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14, 1–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, R. M. (1998). Paranoid cognition in social systems: Thinking and acting in the shadow of doubt. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 251–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, R. M. (2001). Organizational paranoia: Origins and dynamics. Research in Organizational Behavior, 23, 1–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Law, C. L., Martinez, L. R., Ruggs, E. N., Hebl, M. R., & Akers, E. (2011). Trans-parency in the workplace: How the experiences of transsexual employees can be improved. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79, 710–723.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levitt, H. M., & Ippolito, M. R. (2014). Being transgender navigating minority stressors and developing authentic self-presentation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38, 46–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liddle, B. J., Luzzo, D. A., Hauenstein, A. L., & Schuck, K. (2004). Construction and validation of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered climate inventory. Journal of Career Assessment, 12, 33–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lombardi, E. L., Wilchins, R. A., Priesing, D., & Malouf, D. (2001). Gender violence: Transgender experiences with violence and discrimination. Journal of Homosexuality, 42, 89–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C. G., & Saenz, D. S. (1985). Memory deficits and memory surfeits: Differential cognitive consequences of tokenism for tokens and observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 918.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. (1988). Gender as a social category. Developmental Psychology, 24, 755–765.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marr, J. C., Thau, S., Aquino, K., & Barclay, L. J. (2012). Do I want to know? How the motivation to acquire relationship-threatening information in groups contributes to paranoid thought, suspicion behavior, and social rejection. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 117, 285–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, L., Sawyer, K., Thoroughgood, C. N., & Ohle, L. (2014, May). Transitioning at work: The impact of gender realignment on workplace attitudes. Symposium presented at the 29th Annual Conference for the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Honolulu, HI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moradi, B., Mohr, J. J., Worthington, R. L., & Fassinger, R. E. (2009). Counseling psychology research on sexual (orientation) minority issues: Conceptual and methodological challenges and opportunities. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 5–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nadal, K. L., Skolnik, A., & Wong, Y. (2012). Interpersonal and systemic microaggressions toward transgender people: Implications for counseling. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 6, 55–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Transgender Equality. (2012). Ending anti-transgender violence. Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/resources/NCTE_Blueprint_for_Equality2012_Ending_Violence.pdf

  • National Center for Transgender Equality. (2015). Housing and homelessness. Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/resources/NCTE_Blueprint_2015_HousingHomelessness.pdf

  • Newson, J. T., Jones, R. N., & Hofer, S. M. (2012). Longitudinal data analysis: A practical guide for researchers in aging, health, and social sciences. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Driscoll, M. P., & Beehr, T. A. (1994). Supervisor behaviors, role stressors and uncertainty as predictors of personal outcomes for subordinates. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 141–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Open Society Foundations. (2013). Transforming health: International rights based advocacy for trans-health. Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/transforming-health-20130213.pdf

  • Park, M., & Dhitavat, K. (2015). Thailand’s new constitution could soon recognize third gender. CNN. Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://www.cnn.com/2015/01/16/world/third-gender-thailand/

  • Pascoe, C. J. (2011). Dude, you’re a fag: Masculinity and sexuality in high school. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quintana, N. S., Rosenthal, J., & Krehely, J. (2010). On the streets: The federal response to gay and transgender homeless youth. American Progress. Accessed March 21, 2015, from https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2010/06/pdf/lgbtyouthhomelessness.pdf

  • Ragins, B. R. (2008). Disclosure disconnects: Antecedents and consequences of disclosing invisible stigmas across life domains. Academy of Management Review, 33, 194–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R., Singh, R., & Cornwell, J. M. (2007). Making the invisible visible: Fear and disclosure of sexual orientation at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1103–1118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., LaGuardia, J. G., & Rawsthorne, L. J. (2005). Self-complexity and the authenticity of self-aspects: Effects on well-being and resilience to stressful events. North American Journal of Psychology, 7, 431–448.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schilt, K. (2006). Just one of the guys? How transmen make gender visible at work. Gender and Society, 20, 465–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schilt, K., & Connell, C. (2007). Do workplace gender transitions make gender trouble? Gender, Work and Organization, 14, 596–618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schilt, K., & Westbrook, L. (2009). Doing gender, doing heteronormativity “gender normals” transgender people, and the social maintenance of heterosexuality. Gender and Society, 23, 440–464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schilt, K. R., & Wiswall, M. (2008). Before and after: Gender transitions, human capital, and workplace experiences. The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis and Policy, 8, 1–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., Rawsthorne, L. J., & Ilardi, B. (1997). Trait self and true self: Cross-role variation in the big five personality traits and its relations with psychological authenticity and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1380–1393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shotter, J. (1993). Becoming someone: Identity and belonging. In N. Coupland & J. F. Nussbaum (Eds.), Discourse and lifespan identity (pp. 5–27). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stotzer, R. L. (2009). Violence against transgender people: A review of United States data. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 170–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swann, W. B., Jr. (1983). Self-verification: Bringing social reality into harmony with the self. In J. Suls & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 2, pp. 33–66). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swann, W. B. (1987). Identity negotiation: Where two roads meet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1038–1051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thoroughgood, C. N., Sawyer, K., Webster, J., & Martinez, L. (2015). State paranoia at work: Empirically examining transgender employees’ work experiences. In Poster to be presented at the 30th Annual Conference for the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychologists. Philadelphia, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Transgender Law Center. (2004). Transgender health and the law: Identifying and fighting health care discrimination. Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://translaw.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/99737410-Health-Law-Fact.pdf

  • Transgender Law Center. (2012). Frequently asked questions: What the EEOC’s decision in the Macy v. Holder case means for you? Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://translaw.wpengine.com/issues/employment/eeocfa

  • Transgender Law Center. (2013) Model transgender employment policies. Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://transgenderlawcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/model-workplace-employment-policy-Updated.pdf

  • UNAIDS. (2014). Transgender people. Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/08_Transgenderpeople.pdf

  • Waldo, C. R. (1999). Working in a majority context: A structural model of heterosexism as minority stress in the workplace. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 218–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender and Society, 1, 125–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D. (2007). Ostracism. Psychology, 58, 425–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wojcik, M. E. (2014). Male. Female. Other. India requires legal recognition of a third gender. International Law News, 43, 4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yogyakarta Principles. (2015). Accessed March 21, 2015, from http://www.yogyakartaprinciples.org/principles_en.pdf

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Katina Sawyer Ph.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Sawyer, K., Thoroughgood, C., Webster, J. (2016). Queering the Gender Binary: Understanding Transgender Workplace Experiences. In: Köllen, T. (eds) Sexual Orientation and Transgender Issues in Organizations. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29623-4_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics