Abstract
Carroll’s model on its own has not been able to satisfy demands that CSR should not remain vague as a theoretical concept. In order to fill the concept with greater meaning, theoretically, it could be enhanced with a concrete selected problem of social responsibility. In combination with the existing general theoretical model, this approach may be able to shed further light on what concrete corporate responsibilities in this topical domain organizations have, but also what obstacles may hinder the realization of these responsibilities—a question the general model has not been able to make statements on. The infringement perspective in the CSR theoretical model also promises to yield information on “neuralgic” points and potentially effective leverage to improved CSR. When one considers the existing CSR definitions’ common denominators, they reveal strong frequencies of “economic” and “social” dimensions in their definitions. From the theoretical perspective taken here, it is troubling also the “voluntarism” dimension yields almost equally high frequencies. It is hoped with the arguing of a concrete CSR topic against a strong existing theoretical backdrop, it can be demonstrated the frequent “voluntarism” dimension is in fact incompatible with what is here understood as “core”—normatively backed—social responsibilities.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
Dahlsrud (2008), p 5.
- 3.
Ibid. Wentling (2003), p 311ff.
- 4.
US Department of Labor, “20 Leading Occupations of Employed Women 2009 Annual Averages”, http://www.dol.gov/wb/factsheets/20lead2009.htm
- 5.
- 6.
Granleese (2004), p 219ff.
- 7.
- 8.
Adams and Flynn (2005), p 837.
- 9.
Peterson and Philpot (2007), p 180.
- 10.
Van der Boon (2003), p 133.
- 11.
Hartly (2004), p 47.
- 12.
Van der Boon (2003), p 132.
- 13.
Ibid.
- 14.
Hartly (2004), p 47.
- 15.
Leung and Westwood (1994), p 77f.
- 16.
Antal and Krebsbacher-Gnath (1993), p 62.
- 17.
Eagly et al. (1995), p 128.
- 18.
- 19.
- 20.
Valentine et al. (2002), p 117f.
- 21.
Fenwick and Neal (2001), p 216f.
- 22.
Webb (1997), p 164.
- 23.
Peterson and Philpot (2007), p 179.
- 24.
Ibid., p 177
- 25.
Lane and Crane (2002), 121ff.
- 26.
Van der Boon (2003), p 132.
- 27.
- 28.
Eagly et al. (1995), p 126f.
- 29.
Stuart (1992), p 73.
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
Hollander (1992), p 71ff.
- 32.
Eagly et al. (1995), p 127.
- 33.
- 34.
Donnell and Hall (1980).
- 35.
- 36.
Powell (1990), p 70ff.
- 37.
Eagly et al. (1995), p 135ff.
- 38.
- 39.
Eagly et al. (1995), p 126ff.
- 40.
Paulson Gjerde (2002), p 448f.
- 41.
Van der Walt and Ingley (2003a), p 227.
- 42.
Wentling (2003), p 321.
- 43.
Bilimoria (1997), p 74f.
- 44.
Kanter (1993), p 6ff.
- 45.
Eagly (1987).
- 46.
- 47.
Jaffee and Hyde (2000).
- 48.
Beltramini et al. (1984); McNichols and Zimmerer (1985); Kidwell et al. (1987); Ferrell and Skinner (1988); Jones and Gautschi (1988); Akaah (1989); Betz et al. (1989); Whipple and Swords (1992); Lane (1995); Mason and Mudrack (1996); Smith and Oakley (1997); Dawson (1997); Ekin and Tezölmez (1999); Weeks et al. (1999); D’Aquila (2001); Beu et al. (2003).
- 49.
- 50.
Jaffee and Hyde (2000).
- 51.
Feldberg and Glenn (1979).
- 52.
Mccabe et al. (2006), p 101ff.
- 53.
McCabe et al. (2006), p 108.
- 54.
Crain and Heischmidt (1995), 329ff.
- 55.
Luthar et al. (1997), p 214ff.
- 56.
Weeks et al. (1999), p 307.
- 57.
Baugh 899f, European Commission, “Sexual Harassment in the Workplace in the European Union” (1998), p iii. www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/shworkpl.pdf
- 58.
Delaney and Huselid (1996), p 964.
- 59.
Becker and Gerhart (1996), p 779.
- 60.
Foote (2001), p 35.
- 61.
Ruigrok et al. (2007), p 547.
- 62.
- 63.
Lado and Wilson (1994), p 704.
- 64.
- 65.
Kolpin and Singell (1996), p 421.
- 66.
Hellerstein et al. (2002), p 714.
- 67.
Dijkstra (1997), p 47ff.
- 68.
Ibid.
- 69.
Paulson (2002), p 453.
- 70.
Ibid., p 590.
- 71.
Szwajkowski and Larwood (1991), p 512.
- 72.
Bilimoria and Piderit (1994), p 1453ff, using data from the 1980s.
- 73.
Peterson and Philpot (2007), p 190ff.
- 74.
Vinnicombe and Singh (2003), p 129f.
- 75.
Becker and Gerhart (1996), p 779f.
- 76.
Konrad and Mangel (2000), 1231f.
- 77.
Ibid., p 700.
- 78.
Becker and Gerhart (1996), p 796.
- 79.
Rose (2007), p 406.
- 80.
Adler (1993), p 4f.
- 81.
Ibid.
- 82.
- 83.
Mavin (2001), p 189.
- 84.
Brammer et al. (2007), 393.
- 85.
- 86.
Jackson et al. (2003), p 802.
- 87.
Mavin (2001), p 189.
- 88.
An adapation of Van der Walt and Ingley’s definition of board diversity to general organizational diversity. Van der Walt and Ingley (2003a), p 219.
- 89.
Galea and Wright (1999), p 90f; Alvarez and McGaffery (2000), http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=240502
- 90.
Van der Walt et al. (2006), p 129.
- 91.
Carter et al. (2008), Working paper, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id= 344042
- 92.
- 93.
Hillman et al. (2007), p 941ff.
- 94.
Leonard et al. (2004), p 732.
- 95.
Cox (1994).
- 96.
Tajfel and Turner in: Worchel and Austin (Eds.) (1986).
- 97.
- 98.
- 99.
Leonard et al. (2004), p 733.
- 100.
Leonard et al. (2004), p 743.
- 101.
Nike innovations in female sports- and footwear can be traced to the appointment of female board directors, who disapproved of developed products due to first-hand experience of female customer needs and wants. Singh et al. (2001), p 207.
- 102.
Kaptein (2004), p 13ff.
- 103.
Note the following paragraphs juxtapose results from independent studies, varying in methods and instruments used, as well as in populations surveyed or interviewed. Naturally, limitations to direct comparison between results arise, therefore results are not expressed in numerical terms in order to avoid misconceptions. Results of independent studies are placed into context wherever interesting tendencies across sample, functional and national boundaries are observed.
- 104.
Wood and Lindorff (2001), p 159f.
- 105.
Wood and Lindorff (2001), 153ff.
- 106.
Burke (1994), p 6.
- 107.
Davidson and Burke (2000), p 3.
- 108.
Fagenson and Jackson (1993), p 102f.
- 109.
Davidson and Burke (2000), p 3ff.
- 110.
Sheridan and Milgate (2003), p 152.
- 111.
Sheridan (2001), p 10.
- 112.
Adler (1993), p 14.
- 113.
Cooper (2001), p 41.
- 114.
Fawcett and Pringle (2000), p 258.
- 115.
Sheridan and Milgate (2003), p 152.
- 116.
Schein (2007), p 8ff.
- 117.
Ng and Burke (2004), p 317ff.
- 118.
- 119.
Bishop et al. (2000), p 1113ff.
- 120.
Jehn and Mannix (2001), p 238.
- 121.
Ancona and Caldwell (1992), p 322.
- 122.
Bilimoria and Piderit (1994), p 1472.
- 123.
- 124.
- 125.
Van der Walt and Ingley (2003b), p 5.
- 126.
Van der Walt et al. (2006), p 130.
- 127.
Lazear (1998), http://www.nber.org/papers/w6579
- 128.
Bilimoria and Piderit (1994), p 1472.
- 129.
European Commission (2008), “Women and Men in Decision-Making 2007—Analysis of the Situation and Trends”, http://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=2034&langId=en
- 130.
Van der Walt and Ingley (2003b), p 5.
- 131.
Leonard et al. (2004), p 735.
- 132.
Bilimoria and Piderit (1994), p 1472.
- 133.
Murphy and McIntyre (2007), p 215.
- 134.
Van der Walt and Ingley (2003b), p 12.
- 135.
Ibid.
- 136.
Van der walt et al. (2006), p 131.
- 137.
Ibid. Murray (1989), p 125ff.
- 138.
Hoffman and Maier (1961), p 401ff.
- 139.
Nemeth (1986), p 23ff.
- 140.
Watson et al. (1993), p 590ff.
- 141.
- 142.
Jackson et al. (2003), p 810.
- 143.
Hambrick et al. (1996), p 659ff.
- 144.
Catalyst (1997), “1997 Catalyst Census of Women Board Directors of the Fortune 500”, http://www.catalyst.org/publication/169/1997-catalyst-census-of-women-board-directors-of-the-fortune-500
- 145.
Burke (2000), p 118ff.
- 146.
Herring (2009), p 208ff.
- 147.
Richard (2000), p 164ff.
- 148.
Carter et al. (2003b), http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=344042
- 149.
Carter et al. (2008), http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1106698
- 150.
Erhardt et al. (2003), p 102ff.
- 151.
Adams and Ferreira (2004), http://ssrn.com/abstract=594506
- 152.
Catalyst (2004) “The Bottom Line: Connecting Corporate Performance and Gender Diversity”, http://www.catalyst.org/publication/82/the-bottom-line-connecting-corporate-performance-and-gender-diversity
- 153.
Hartarskaa and Nadolnyak (2012), p 4313ff.
- 154.
- 155.
Farrell and Hersch (2005), p 87.
- 156.
Zahra and Stanton (1988), p 261ff.
- 157.
Shrader et al. (1997), p 365ff.
- 158.
Shrader et al. (1997), p 368.
- 159.
Shrader et al. (1997), p 366.
- 160.
Bilimoria and Piderit (1994), p 1453ff.
- 161.
Shrader et al. (1997), p 366f.
- 162.
- 163.
Kochan et al. (2003), p 3ff.
- 164.
Leonard et al. (2004), p 731ff.
- 165.
Townsend and Scott (2001), p 317ff.
- 166.
Timmerman (2000), p 592f.
- 167.
See also: Jackson et al. (2003), p 810f.
- 168.
Adams and Ferreira (2009), p 485ff.
- 169.
Smith et al. (2006), p 569ff.
- 170.
Rose (2007), p 404ff.
- 171.
Catalyst (2007d).
- 172.
Lückerath-Rovers (2013), p 491ff.
- 173.
- 174.
Carter et al. (2008).
- 175.
Recently, Adams and Ferreira (2009), p 291ff.
- 176.
Williams and O’Reilly (1998), p 77f.
- 177.
- 178.
Brown et al. (2002), www.conferenceboard.ca/e-library/abstract.aspx?did=374
- 179.
Catalyst (2011), “2011 Catalyst Census: Fortune 500 Women Board Directors” http://www.catalyst.org/publication/515/2011-catalyst-census-fortune-500-women-board-directors
- 180.
Keys et al. (2002), Working Paper.
- 181.
Wright et al. (1995), p 272ff.
- 182.
Dobbin and Jung (2011), p 2ff.
- 183.
Wueber and Bigelow (2011), Working Paper, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstractid=1733112
- 184.
Haslam et al. (2010), p 484ff.
- 185.
Ryan and Haslam (2005), 12ff.
- 186.
- 187.
Townsend and Scott (2001), p 317ff.
- 188.
Among others, individual marketing ability measured by grades previous to MARKSTRAT, group size effects etc. Fenwick and Neal (2001), p 210f.
- 189.
Fenwick and Neal (2001), 211ff.
- 190.
Ibid., p 221.
- 191.
Terjesen et al. (2009), p 329.
- 192.
Van der Walt and Ingley (2003a), p 219.
- 193.
Ibid., p 130.
- 194.
Murphy and McIntyre (2007), p 215.
- 195.
Erhardt et al. (2003), p 103.
- 196.
Hambrick et al. (1996), p 659ff.
- 197.
Ibid.
- 198.
Van der Walt and Ingley (2003a), p 8f.
- 199.
Leonard et al. (2004), p 735.
- 200.
Fenwick and Neal (2001), p 206.
- 201.
Van der Walt and Ingley (2003a), p 8f.
- 202.
Bilimoria and Piderit (1994), p 1472.
- 203.
Hogg and Terry (2000), p 129f.
- 204.
Pelled et al. (1999), p 1ff.
- 205.
Jehn and Mannix (2001), p 242.
- 206.
Jehn et al. (1999), p 759.
- 207.
Van der Walt and Ingley (2003a), p 219.
- 208.
Ibid., p 228.
- 209.
- 210.
O’Regan et al. (2004), p 56.
- 211.
Anonymous (2004), p 130.
- 212.
Van der Walt et al. (2006), p 135.
- 213.
European Commission (2007), http://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=2034&langId=en
- 214.
Pfeffer and Salancik (2003), p 168ff.
- 215.
Ellis and Keys (2003), Working Paper.
- 216.
Thomsen and Rose (2004), p 201ff.
- 217.
The Economist, “Hello Girls! Marketing to Women”, 03/12/09, http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displayStory.cfm?story_id=13278440
- 218.
Jamali et al. (2007), p 575f.
- 219.
European Commission (2007), http://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=2034&langId=en
- 220.
Van der Walt and Ingley (2003a), p 225.
- 221.
Terjesen et al. (2009), p 331.
- 222.
Forster (2000), 322f.
- 223.
- 224.
Heaton and McWhinney (1999), p 136.
- 225.
Paulson Gjerde (2002), p 448f.
- 226.
Lefkowitz (1994), p 344.
- 227.
- 228.
Marshall (1993), p 21.
- 229.
Wentling (2003), p 317.
- 230.
Peterson and Philpot (2007), p 184.
- 231.
Oakley (2000), p 330.
- 232.
McCormick Hyland and Marcellino (2004), p 25.
- 233.
Oakley (2000), p 330.
- 234.
Davidson and Burke (2000), p 53.
- 235.
Wood (2006), p 283ff.
- 236.
Wentling (2003), p 317f.
- 237.
Robertson et al. (2002), p 330.
- 238.
Forster (2000), 319f.
- 239.
Burke (1994), p 5.
- 240.
Tsui et al. (1992), p 575.
- 241.
Singh et al. (2006a, b), p 67.
- 242.
Fowler et al. (2007), p 676.
- 243.
Fowler et al. (2007), p 676.
- 244.
Cross (2006), p 35.
- 245.
Stuart (1992), p 74.
- 246.
Kirchmeyer (2002), p 6.
- 247.
Fowler et al. (2007), p 676.
- 248.
Kirchmeyer (1995), p 68.
- 249.
Ibid.
- 250.
Fowler et al. (2007), p 675.
- 251.
Butz and Lewis (1996), p 1141.
- 252.
Fowler et al. (2007), p 675.
- 253.
Ellison (2001), p 277.
- 254.
Burke (1994), p 5f.
- 255.
Singh et al. (2001a), p 207.
- 256.
Farrell and Hersch (2005), p 741ff.
- 257.
Mavin (2006), p 349ff.
- 258.
Ashford et al. (1998), p 23f.
- 259.
Van der Walt and Ingley (2003a), p 226.
- 260.
Catalyst, “Advancing Women Leaders: The Connection Between Women Board Directors and Women Corporate Officers” (2008), http://www.catalyst.org/publication/273/advancing-women-leaders-the-connection-between-women-board-directors-and-women-corporate-officersp 4ff
- 261.
Terjesen et al. (2009), p 324.
- 262.
Rindfleish and Sheridan (2003), p 307.
- 263.
Thanacoody et al. (2006), p 546.
- 264.
Burke (1994), p 5.
- 265.
Burke (1997), p 911ff.
- 266.
Bilimoria (1997), p 70.
- 267.
Burgess and Tharenou (2002), p 40.
- 268.
Terjesen et al. (2009), p 328.
- 269.
- 270.
Terjesen et al. (2009), p 329.
- 271.
Lane and Crane (2002), p 123.
- 272.
Leonard et al. (2004), p 747.
- 273.
Robinson and Deschant (1997), p 21ff.
- 274.
Hammond and Holton (1993), p 88.
- 275.
Catalyst (2004), “The Bottom Line: Connecting Corporate Performance and Gender Diversity”, http://www.catalyst.org/publication/82/the-bottom-line-connecting-corporate-performance-and-gender-diversity
- 276.
The Economist (2009), “Hello Girls! Marketing to Women”, http://www.economist.com/business finance/displayStory.cfm?story_id=13278440
- 277.
- 278.
- 279.
Cassell (1997), p13ff;
- 280.
Singh et al. (2001), p 207.
- 281.
Jamali et al. (2007), p 576.
- 282.
Singh et al. (2001), p 206f.
- 283.
Dobbin and Jung (2011), p 811ff.
- 284.
Van der Walt and Ingley (2003a), p 220ff.
- 285.
Farrell and Hersch (2005), p 88.
- 286.
TIAA-CREF Financial Services, “Policy Statement on Corporate Governance”, 6th edition, http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/pdf/governance_policy.pdf
- 287.
Carter et al. (2003a), p 34; National Association of Corporate Directors (2003) NACD Blue Ribbon Commission Report on Executive Compensation and the Role of the Compensation Committee, http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-87457621/nacd-blue-ribbon-commission.html
- 288.
Dobbin and Jung (2011), p 811ff.
- 289.
- 290.
Korac-Kakabadse (2001), p 107.
- 291.
Noble and Mears (2000), p 409ff.
- 292.
Hall-Taylor (1997), p 257ff.
- 293.
Mavin (2001), p 190.
- 294.
Bell (2002), p 384ff.
- 295.
Feryn, C-54/07.
- 296.
Inter Environnement Wallonie, C-129/96.
- 297.
Peterbroeck, Van Campenhout and Cie SCS v Belgian State, C-312/93.
- 298.
Reich (2007), p 708ff.
- 299.
The ECJ pronounces judgment on questions of the interpretation of EU law that need clarification. Questions needing factual clarification are left to national courts to decide.
- 300.
Münch (2008), p 519ff.
- 301.
Flaminio Costa v. ENEL, C-6/64; Dutheil de la Rochère (2004), p 347.
- 302.
Jacobs (2004), p 307.
- 303.
Defrenne III, C-149/77.
- 304.
Grant, C-249/96.
- 305.
Fischer et al. (2002), p 447ff.
- 306.
Azoulai (2008), p 1347.
- 307.
Schräder, C-265/87.
- 308.
Art 19, EUR-Lex, “Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union …”, 2010/C 83/01, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JOHtml.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:SOM:EN:HTML
- 309.
Art 2, EUR-Lex, “Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union …”, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JOHtml.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:SOM:EN:HTML
- 310.
Art 3 and Art 8, ibid.
- 311.
Art 153 (i), ibid.
- 312.
Article 21 and 23, EUR-Lex, “Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union”, 2010/C 83/02, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JOHtml.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:SOM:EN:HTML
- 313.
Münch (2008), p 519ff.
- 314.
- 315.
Klamert (2006), p 1256ff.
- 316.
Charpentier (1998), p 180; Simmenthal, C-92/78, Nimz, C-184/89.
- 317.
Barnard (2006), p 378.
- 318.
Art 141, “Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union …”, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JOHtml.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:SOM:EN:HTML
- 319.
Defrenne II, C-43/75.
- 320.
Art 10, “Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union …”, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JOHtml.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:SOM:EN:HTML; Münch (2008), p 527
- 321.
Klamert (2006), p 1251.
- 322.
Eurofound, “Direct Effect”, http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/industrialrelations/dictionary/definitions/directeffect.htm
- 323.
Concerning directive 2000/78, Mangold, C-144/04.
- 324.
Anonymous (2006), p 7f.
- 325.
Art 157 (Art 141 and 119 in earlier treaty versions); directive 75/117/EEC.
- 326.
Directive 76/207/EEC.
- 327.
- 328.
Directive 2006/54/EC.
- 329.
Howard (2008), p 174.
- 330.
Jørgensen, C-226/98.
- 331.
Barnard (2006), p 399ff; Bilka-Kaufhaus, C-170/84.
- 332.
Art 1 (b), directive 2006/54/EC; for the introduction of the proportionality test: Bilka-Kaufhaus, C-170/84.
- 333.
Connolly (2001a), p 314.
- 334.
Münch (2008), p 532.
- 335.
Danfoss, C-109/88.
- 336.
Art 2 (2), directive 2006/54/EC.
- 337.
Dekker, C-177/88.
- 338.
Art 2 (4), equal treatment directive 76/207/EC.
- 339.
Barnard (2006), p 310.
- 340.
This symmetrical view on equality holds the potential to substantially improve working conditions for male employees as well. In the British decision Riley v Nich Base t/a GL1, reference to symmetrical equality with female staff caused “rough conduct” toward male apprentices to be declared unlawful discrimination on grounds of sex. Cunningham (2006), p 287f.
- 341.
Art 2 (1) and 2 (4) of directive 76/207/EEC.
- 342.
Kalanke, C-450/93.
- 343.
Marschall, C-409/95.
- 344.
Kalanke, C-450/93; Barnard (2006), p 420ff.
- 345.
Barnard (2006), p 420ff.
- 346.
Kalanke, C-450/93; Marschall, C-409/95.
- 347.
Marschall, C-409/95.
- 348.
Art 3, directive 2006/54/EC.
- 349.
Masselot (2007b), p 153f.
- 350.
Then Art 119.
- 351.
Defrenne II, C-43/75.
- 352.
Defrenne III, C-149/77.
- 353.
Deutsche Post, C-270/97.
- 354.
Draehmphaehl, C-127/92.
- 355.
Enderby, C-127/92; Dansk Industri, C-400/93.
- 356.
Art 4, Burden of proof directive 97/81/EC.
- 357.
Directive 2000/43/EC.
- 358.
Directive 2000/78/EC.
- 359.
Directive 2004/113/EC.
- 360.
Di Torella (2005), p 343f.
- 361.
Directive 2004/117/EC.
- 362.
Art 2, Directive 2002/73.
- 363.
Art 18, Directive 2006/54.
- 364.
Levez, C-326/96, para 18.
- 365.
Levez, C-326/96, para 32.
- 366.
Levez, C-326/96, verdict, recital 1.
- 367.
Art 6 (1), (2), (3) directive amended equal treatment directive 2002/73/EC; Art 17 and 18 consolidated directive 2006/54/EC.
- 368.
Millns (2007), p 218.
- 369.
The previous Art 19, EC-T.
- 370.
Art 2 (1) e, directive 2006/54/EC.
- 371.
Brunnhofer, C-381/99.
- 372.
Garland, C-12/81.
- 373.
McKenna, C-191/03.
- 374.
Österreichischer Gewerkschaftsbund, C-220/02.
- 375.
Costello and Davies (2006), p 1575ff.
- 376.
Barnard (2006), p 342.
- 377.
Barnard (2006), p 340ff.
- 378.
O’Brien (2008), p 499.
- 379.
Allonby, C-256/01, para 71.
- 380.
Barnard (2006), p 348.
- 381.
See Macarthys, C-129/79; Jenkins, C-96/80.
- 382.
Lawrence, C-320/00, para 18.
- 383.
Barrett (2006a), p 94f.
- 384.
- 385.
Barnard (2006), p 345.
- 386.
Art 2 (1) a, directive 2006/54/EC.
- 387.
Macarthys, 129/79; Rummler, 237/85; Brunnhofer, C-381/99.
- 388.
Brunnhofer, C-381/99.
- 389.
Angestelltenbetriebsrat der Wiener Gebietskrankenkasse, C-309/97.
- 390.
Gill and Monaghan (2003), p 117.
- 391.
Royal Copenhagen, C-400/93.
- 392.
Brunnhofer, C-381/99.
- 393.
For the right to equal treatment, see here in the following.
- 394.
Nimz, C-184/89.
- 395.
Barnard (2006), p 363f.
- 396.
Danfoss, C-109/88.
- 397.
Danfoss, C-109/88.
- 398.
The Court does not accept generalizations on part-timers of the kind that they have less attachment to the firm, but requires further evidence to back this position. On details regarding this line of jurisdiction on seniority, full-time employment, etc. and their impact upon quality of performance or service, see here in the following, especially Nimz, C-184/89.
- 399.
Nimz, C-184/89.
- 400.
Nimz, C-184/89, recital 15.
- 401.
Art 1 (2), directive 75/117/EEC.
- 402.
Dijkstra (1997), p 157.
- 403.
Directives 2002/73/EC, 2006/54/EC.
- 404.
Rummler, C-237/85, recital 25.
- 405.
Barnard (2006), p 349ff.
- 406.
Macarthys, C-129/79; Dansk Industri, C-400/93; Hill and Stapleton, C-243/95; Barnard (2006), p 367.
- 407.
Enderby, C-127/92.
- 408.
Danfoss, C-109/88; Enderby, C-127/92.
- 409.
Gill and Monaghan (2003), p 120.
- 410.
Barnard (2006), p 367ff.
- 411.
National courts can, national supreme courts must refer questions of interpretation of union law, or of national law in the light of union law to the European Court of Justice, which holds the interpretation “monopoly” of EU law.
- 412.
Enderby, C-127/92, para 5.
- 413.
Enderby, C-127/92.
- 414.
Connolly (2001b), p 380.
- 415.
See here in the following in greater detail. Equal treatment directive 76/207/EEC, amended equal treatment directive 2002/73/EC, consolidated directive 2006/54/EC.
- 416.
Art 2 (3) and (4), equal treatment directive 76/207/EEC; Art 7 and Preamble, recital 15, amended equal treatment directive 2002/73/EC.
- 417.
Consolidated directive 2006/54/EC (it remains an option open to Member States according to Art 3 in order to “ensure full equality” between women and men “in working life”). See Sect. 4.2.1.2 for positive action in detail.
- 418.
Art 3, amended equal treatment directive 2002/73/EC.
- 419.
Art 2, amended equal treatment directive 2002/73/EC.
- 420.
Art 8b (4), amended equal treatment directive 2002/73/EC.
- 421.
Commission vs. France Prison Guards, discussed in Barnard (2006), p 409.
- 422.
Kreil, C-285/96, recital 31.
- 423.
Sirdar, C-273/93.
- 424.
Johnston, C-222/84, Art 7 (a).
- 425.
It seems necessary to note the substantial differences between US and EU regulation of security service industries, though. The EU has long not disposed of major competences in member state internal security and external defence matters. With the political Union, greater efforts of common foreign policy and potential future military operations have emerged. Through international challenges, like notably the need of common security for EU borders and consistency in asylum matters, previously domestic competences restricting national discretion in matters of legislation and jurisprudence on foreign nationals and, to some extent, of border defence have moved to the supranational level. Similarly, supranationally operating threats to security (for example, threats arising from terrorism and organized crime) call for at least enhanced supranational cooperation of national security organizations. Still, matters of the internal organization of national security are, traditionally, inherently national issues for European states, in contrast to the US system. This leaves untouched, of course, the fact that on the EU level, equality in employment of both public and private nature constitutes a now already traditionally established higher order of legal commitment for all EU member states.
- 426.
Supreme Court of the United States, 433 U.S. 321Dothard v. Rawlinson, Opinion of the Court: http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0433_0321_ZO.html
- 427.
Supreme Court of the United States, 433 U.S. 321Dothard v. Rawlinson, Opinion of the Court: http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0433_0321_ZO.html
- 428.
Barnard (2006), p 408f.
- 429.
Schnorbus, C-79/99.
- 430.
Feryn, C-54/07.
- 431.
Directive 2000/43.
- 432.
Preamble, recital 8, and Article 3(1)(a), directive 2000/43.
- 433.
Feryn, C-54/07.
- 434.
Gill and Monaghan (2003), p 120ff.
- 435.
Art 2 (3) directive 76/207/EEC. This provision was used in a distorted form in Kreil, where the exclusion of women from any duty with the weapon within the German military was justified as an exception in the sense of Art 2 (3) of the directive—the protection of women with regard to pregnancy and motherhood.
- 436.
Directive on the protection of pregnant workers, 92/85/EC.
- 437.
Barnard (2006), p 455ff.
- 438.
Directive 96/34/EC.
- 439.
Art 2 (7), 2002/73/EC.
- 440.
Dekker, C-177/18, recital 12.
- 441.
Webb, C-32/93; Busch, C-320/01.
- 442.
Barnard (2006), p 450.
- 443.
Barnard (2006), p 448f.
- 444.
Masselot refers to it as “maintenance of a pay” (emphasis added), Burrows and Robison (2007), p 194.
- 445.
Barnard (2006), p 451.
- 446.
McGlynn (2000), p 29.
- 447.
Gill and Monaghan (2003), p 120.
- 448.
James (2007), p 167.
- 449.
McGlynn (2000), p 31ff.
- 450.
Commission v. Italy, C-163/82.
- 451.
Hofmann, C-184/83.
- 452.
Lommers, C-476/99.
- 453.
In Hill, C-243/95, the Court established 99.2 % of job-sharers were women.
- 454.
Assertions such as workers with “less than 10 h a week or 45 h a month” are not as integrated in the undertaking as other workers constitute “mere generalization” and do not “enable criteria which are both objective and unrelated to any discrimination on grounds of sex to be identified”. Rinner-Kühn v. FWW, C-1771/88.
- 455.
Barnard (2006), p 366 f. Kutz-Bauer, C-187/00.
- 456.
Rummler, C-237/85; Barnard (2006), p 381.
- 457.
Elsner-Lakeberg, C-285/02. The national court will have to additionally determine whether significantly more women than men are concerned by this provision (recital 18). If indirect discrimination is established in front of the national court, even this suggested solution might not prevail.
- 458.
Bötel, C-360/90; Barnard (2006), 472ff.
- 459.
Art 2 (2) amended equal treatment directive 2002/73/EC.
- 460.
- 461.
These examples are taken from the European Commission and European Council soft law initiatives. According to the ECJ in Grimaldi, C-322/88, recommendations “cannot be regarded as having no legal effect at all”, so courts, national and European, are bound to consider these documents in the interpretation of union law. Council Resolution of 29 May 1990 on the protection of the dignity of women and men at work, Official Journal C157 of 27.06.1990, paragraph 4 (a). http://www.legislationline.org/documents/action/popup/id/8641; Europa Summaries of EU legislation, Commission Recommendation 92/131/EEC on the protection of the dignity of women and men at work, http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/employment_and_social_policy/equality_between_men_and_women/c10917a_en.htm; European Commission code of practice on sexual harassment, http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/employment_and_social_policy/equality_between_men_and_ women/c10917b_en.htm
- 462.
Barnard (2006), p 404f.
- 463.
European Commission code of practice on sexual harassment, http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/employment_and_social_policy/equality_between_men_and_ women/c10917b_en.htm
- 464.
Grimaldi, C-322/88.
- 465.
Barmes (2007), p 450.
- 466.
Clarke et al. (2005), p 164ff.
- 467.
Masselot (2004), p 97ff.
- 468.
Clarke et al. (2005), p 166.
- 469.
Samuels (2004), p 191.
- 470.
Art 13, directive 2000/43/EC.
- 471.
Art 2 (2), directive 2002/73/EC.
- 472.
European Commission, “Sexual Harassment in the Workplace in the European Union” (1998), www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/shworkpl.pdf
- 473.
United Nations, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/
- 474.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cescr.htm
- 475.
United Nations, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm
- 476.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm
- 477.
United Nations, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner on Human Rights, Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cedaw-one.htm; Art 14 CERD, Office of the United Nations High Commissioner on Human Rights, Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm
- 478.
International Labour Organization, C100 Equal Remuneration Convention (1951), http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?C100, International Labour Organization, R90 Equal Remuneration Recommendation (1951), http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?R090
- 479.
International Labour Organization, C111 Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention (1958), http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?C111, International Labour Organization, R111 Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Recommendation (1958), http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?R111
- 480.
International Labour Organization, ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, http://www.ilo.org/declaration/thedeclaration/textdeclaration/lang--en/index.htm
- 481.
OECD, OECD Directorate for Financial and Enterprise Affairs, OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, http://www.oecd.org/document/28/0,3746,en_2649_34889_2397532_1_1_1_1,00.html
- 482.
Ibid.
- 483.
United Nations Global Compact, http://www.unglobalcompact.org/aboutthegc/thetenprinciples/environment.html
- 484.
An earlier and more detailed version of this chapter on human rights was submitted to Springer’s Corporate Social Responsibility Encyclopedia (2013).
- 485.
Pinkston and Carroll (1996), p 205.
- 486.
- 487.
Carroll (1991), p 39ff.
- 488.
Hosmer (1996), p 325ff.
- 489.
Hosmer (1994), p 18.
- 490.
Hosmer (1996), p 325ff.
- 491.
Hosmer (1995), p 399.
- 492.
Hosmer (1994), p 18. Note these definitions chosen do not claim “objectivity” or “universality” of ethics in line with more recent development of understanding in a multicultural rather than ethnocentric understanding of human ethics.
- 493.
Thorne and Saunders (2002), p 1ff.
- 494.
Translated from a German edition of Aristotle (author), Fuhrmann (ed.) (1998), p 329ff.
- 495.
“Gleichheitssatz”, Öhlinger and Eberhard (2012).
- 496.
Balibar in: Menke and Raimondi (Eds.) (2011), p 291.
- 497.
Count Mirabeau, in: Menke and Raimondi (Eds.) (2011), p 21ff.
- 498.
Sieyés, E. J. in: Menke and Raimondi (Eds.) (2011), p 37ff.
- 499.
- 500.
- 501.
Babeuf in: Menke and Raimondi (Eds.) (2011), p 89ff.
- 502.
- 503.
Babeuf in: Menke and Raimondi (Eds.) (2011), p 89ff.
- 504.
- 505.
Wellmer in: Menke and Raimondi (Eds.) (2011), p 307f.
- 506.
Menke in: Menke and Raimondi (Eds.) (2011), p 252.
- 507.
Hosmer (1994), p 17.
- 508.
- 509.
A prominent example of this strand of research is Miles’ study on the tobacco industry, which faced considerable external stakeholder pressure to modify its business strategy. Hosmer (1994), p 18.
- 510.
Hosmer (1996), p 325ff.
- 511.
The use of the term “parties” rather than persons is meant to stress that a transactional relationship could be between physical persons, groups of physical persons (organizations of individuals, to some degree), and legal entities or body corporates. The entity or body can of course be on the receiving and obligated side of ethical responsibilities to treat and be treated fairly. For thoughts on this from a principal-agent perspective, see also: Hosmer (1995), p 385.
- 512.
Hosmer (1995), p 385ff.
- 513.
Hosmer (1995), p 395ff.
- 514.
Friedman (1970), “The social responsibility of business is to increase its profits”, http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-540-70818-6_14.
- 515.
Kohlberg and Hersh (1977), p 53ff.
- 516.
Card (2005) p 400ff.
- 517.
Weeks et al. (1999), p 310ff.
- 518.
- 519.
Sridhar and Camburn (1993), p 730ff.
- 520.
Neubaum et al. (2004), p 336ff.
- 521.
Hosmer (1995), p 382.
- 522.
Hosmer (1995), p 395ff.
- 523.
Karnes (1995), p 397.
- 524.
Abbott and Monsen (1979), p 501ff.
- 525.
Kaptein (2004), p 45ff.
- 526.
Adams and Flynn (2005), p 836ff.
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Keinert-Kisin, C. (2016). Topical Approach: Gender Discrimination as CSR Problem. In: Corporate Social Responsibility and Discrimination. CSR, Sustainability, Ethics & Governance. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29158-1_4
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