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Exorcism in Counter-Reformation Europe

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A History of Exorcism in Catholic Christianity

Part of the book series: Palgrave Historical Studies in Witchcraft and Magic ((PHSWM))

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Abstract

In the winter of 1604, in the town of Laurac in the south of France, a twenty-one-year-old man was being exorcized to free him from an evil spirit with which he had made a pact in return for wealth. The exorcist, Béringer, assisted by the prayers of a crowd of laypeople in the room, finally achieved a result after many days:

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Notes

  1. 1.

    On the acquisition of wealth by magical means see Thomas (1971), pp. 279–82; Davies, O., Popular Magic, 2nd edn (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007), pp. 93–6; Davies, O., Grimoires: A History of Magic Books (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 39.

  2. 2.

    BL MS Cotton Caligula E XI, fols 237–8, Guillaume de Nautonier to unknown recipient, 14 January 1605: ‘Finalement, le mardj 4ni du Fin[a]l mois Janvier entre 10. et 11. heures du soir en pr[es]ence d[u] [d]it S[eigneu]r Beringer & 30. ou 40. Persones, Le malni esprit sort du corps de cet home en forme d’une flamme de feu come une fasce faite a poudre a canon d’une grande puanteur et de telle poideur qu’elle dona a deux des assistans Un grand coup, a L’un sur le visage a L’au[tr]e sur L’oreille dont il demeura sourd … L’Esprit sorty voltigeoit en L’air et fascoit effort de rentrer au cors d[u] [d]it home, Et au mesme instant Les bois mis de La d[it] maiso[n] ouïllent un grand bruit du q[ue]l aucunes des d[ite]s maisons tremblerent estra[n]g[e]m[en]t’.

  3. 3.

    On Huguenot attitudes to exorcism see Ferber (2004), pp. 32–3.

  4. 4.

    Sluhovsky (2007), pp. 69–78.

  5. 5.

    On exorcism and apocalypticism see Clark (1997), p. 409.

  6. 6.

    Ferber (2004), p. 4.

  7. 7.

    Dall’Olio, G., ‘The Devil of Inquisitors, Demoniacs and Exorcists in Counter-Reformation Italy’, in Dendle, P. and Raiswell, R. (eds), The Devil in Society in Pre-Modern Europe (Toronto: Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, 2012), pp. 511–36.

  8. 8.

    Cameron (2010), pp. 59–60.

  9. 9.

    Ibid. pp. 38–9.

  10. 10.

    On Counter-Reformation responses to witchcraft see Clark (1997), p. 527; Clark, S., ‘Protestant Witchcraft, Catholic Witchcraft’ in Oldridge, D. (ed.), The Witchcraft Reader (London: Routledge, 2002), pp. 165–77.

  11. 11.

    Midelfort (2005a), p. 9.

  12. 12.

    Cameron (2010), pp. 193–5.

  13. 13.

    On the Spanish Inquisition’s attitude to witchcraft see Weber (2005), p. 188; Henningsen, G., The Witches’ Advocate: Basque Witchcraft and the Spanish Inquisition (1609–1614) (Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press, 1980); Henningsen, G., ‘“The Ladies from Outside”: An Archaic Pattern of the Witches’ Sabbath’ in Ankarloo, B. and Henningsen, G. (eds.), Early Modern European Witchcraft: Centres and Peripheries (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 191–215, at p. 194.

  14. 14.

    Davies (2009), p. 59.

  15. 15.

    Erasmus, D., The Colloquies of Erasmus (trans. C. R. Thompson) (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1965), pp. 231–327. On Erasmus’s colloquy see Cox, J. D., Seeming Knowledge: Shakespeare and Skeptical Faith (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2007), pp. 3–4.

  16. 16.

    On Catholic criticism see Ferber (2004), pp. 17–22.

  17. 17.

    Ibid. p. 21.

  18. 18.

    On the Protestant critique see Cameron (2010), pp. 205–8.

  19. 19.

    On the Tridentine revision of baptismal rites of exorcism see Kelly (1985), pp. 261–2.

  20. 20.

    Roper, L., Oedipus and the Devil: Witchcraft, Sexuality and Religion in Early Modern Europe (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 185; Lederer, D., ‘Exorzieren ohne Lizenz…’ in De Waardt et al. (2005), pp. 213–31, at pp. 214–18. On exorcism as Counter-Reformation propaganda see Venard, M., ‘Le Démon controversiste’ in Péronnet, M. (ed.), La Controverse Religieuse (XVIe–XIXe siècles): Actes du Ier Colloque Jean Boisset (Montpellier: Université Paul Valery, 1980), vol. 2, pp. 45–60; Walker, D. P., ‘Demonic Possession used as Propaganda in the Later Sixteenth Century’ in Garfagnini, G. (ed.), Scienze, credenze occulte, livelli di cultura (Florence: Olschki, 1982), pp. 237–48; Weber (1983), pp. 79–101; Pearl, J. L., ‘Demons and Politics in France, 1560–1630’, Historical Reflections 12 (1985), pp. 241–51; Pearl, J. L., ‘“A School for Rebel Soul”: Politics and Demonic Possession in France’, Historical Reflections 16 (1989), pp. 286–306; Hanlon, G. and Snow, G., ‘Exorcisme et Cosmologie Tridentine: trois cas agenais en 1619’, Revue de la Bibliothèque Nationale 28 (1988), pp. 12–27; Soergel, P. M., Wondrous in His Saints: Counter-Reformation Propaganda in Bavaria (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993), pp. 99–158.

  21. 21.

    Sluhovsky (1996), pp. 1039–42. On the Laon case see also Walker (1981); Crouzet, D., ‘A Woman and the Devil: Possession and Exorcism in Sixteenth-Century France’ in Wolfe, M. (ed.), Changing Identities in Early Modern France (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996), pp. 191–215; Ferber (2004), pp. 23–39; on contemporary reactions see Backus, I., Le Miracle de Laon: le deraisonnable, le raisonnable, l’apocalyptique et le politique dans les recits du Miracle de Laon, 1566–1578 (Paris: J. Vrin, 1994).

  22. 22.

    Walker (1981), p. 24.

  23. 23.

    Ferber (2004), p. 6; Sluhovsky (1996), p. 1043.

  24. 24.

    On the Brossier case see Walker, A. M. and Dickerman, E. H., ‘“A Woman under the Influence’: a case of alleged possession in sixteenth-century France’, Sixteenth Century Journal 22 (1991), pp. 535–54; Ferber (2004), pp. 40–59.

  25. 25.

    Thyraeus, P., De demoniacis liber unus (Cologne 1594), pp. 36–8.

  26. 26.

    Raiswell and Dendle (2012), pp. 537–51.

  27. 27.

    Romeo (1990), p. 115.

  28. 28.

    On Menghi’s apocalypticism see Clark, S., Thinking with Demons (Oxford: Clarendon 1997), p. 409. On Menghi’s life and influence see M. R. O’Neill, ‘Discerning Superstition: Popular Errors and Orthodox Response in Late Sixteenth-Century Italy’, unpublished PhD thesis, Stanford University, 1981; Romeo (1990), pp. 114–44; Sluhovsky (2007), pp. 78–87; Probst, M., Besessenheit, Zauberei und ihre Heilmittel: Dokumentation und Untersuchungen von Exorcismushandbüchern des Girolamo Menghi (1523–1609) und des Maximilian von Eynatten (1574/75–1631) (Münster: Aschendorff, 2008).

  29. 29.

    Menghi, G., Compendio dell’arte essorcistica (Venice, 1605), p. 24. See Augustine, De Genesi ad litteram (PL 34.284). On Menghi’s demonology see Maggi (2001), pp. 104–36; Maggi, A., In the Company of Demons: Unnatural Beings, Love, and Identity in the Italian Renaissance (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2006), pp. 1–5.

  30. 30.

    Sluhovsky (2007), p. 45.

  31. 31.

    On sexual and physical abuse by early modern exorcists see ibid. pp. 45–9; 68–9.

  32. 32.

    Romeo (1990), pp. 145–68.

  33. 33.

    Thorndike, L., A History of Magic and Experimental Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1923–58), vol. 6, pp. 556–9; Sluhovsky (2007), p. 78; Gentilcore (1992), pp. 107–11.

  34. 34.

    Barbierato, F., ‘Magical Literature and the Venice Inquisition from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries’ in Gilly, C. and Van Heertum C. (eds), Magia, Alchimia, Scienza dal’400 al’700; l’influsso di Ermete Trismegisto (Florence: Centro Di, 2002), pp. 159–75, at p. 160.

  35. 35.

    Stampa, P. A., Fuga Satanae in Thesaurus Exorcismorum (Cologne 1608), pp. 1245–6: Praepara duas imagines, alteram sub effigie daemonis cum nomine: alteram, quae personam maleficam, quam daemon usus est, in illo maleficio. Componendo, cui adde nomen aliquod, ut v. g. Pytho, maleficus, magus; strigha, vel aliquod simile.

  36. 36.

    Butler, E. M., Ritual Magic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1949), p. 58.

  37. 37.

    Lederer, D., Madness, Religion and the State in Early Modern Europe: A Bavarian Beacon (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 216–18. In his analysis of early modern Bavarian exorcisms, Lederer has demonstrated that the authorities in southern Germany were determined to control exorcism, occasionally prosecuting unlicensed exorcists and sending demoniacs to designated shrines such as the shrine of St Anastasia at Benediktbeuern. Furthermore, in one case the secular authorities undermined the clergy by licensing a female lay exorcist, Rosina Huber, who worked for prominent families in Bavaria throughout the 1650s (see Lederer (2005), pp. 213–31).

  38. 38.

    For detailed studies of the Thesaurus see Maggi (2001) and Kallendorff (2005).

  39. 39.

    Thesaurus exorcismarum (Cologne 1608), pp. 1–196, 197–284.

  40. 40.

    Ibid. pp. 285–526, 527–756.

  41. 41.

    Ibid. pp. 757–1192.

  42. 42.

    Ibid. pp. 1193–1272.

  43. 43.

    Ibid. pp. 1202–4.

  44. 44.

    Ibid. pp. 1218–21.

  45. 45.

    Ibid. pp. 1221–5.

  46. 46.

    Ibid. pp. 1226–9 (this section included the Praecipio tibi).

  47. 47.

    Ibid. p. 1225.

  48. 48.

    Ibid. pp. 1230–2: Deus qui Beato Petro Apostoli tuo collatis clavib[us] regni coelestis, animas ligandi, atq[ue] solvendi Pontificium tradidisti concede: Ut intercessionis ejus auxilio a peccatorum nexibus, & diabolicis vinculus hic famulus tuus N. liberetur. Per eum qui est morti mors, et inferno morsus, & qui cum Patre, & Spiritu sancto venturus est judicare saeculum per ignem.

  49. 49.

    Ibid. pp. 1238–44: This, the most elaborate part of the whole exorcism, required the priest to prepare sulphur and pitch, which were set alongside the instruments of witchcraft. After a series of readings, prayers and addresses to the demons, the priest blessed a fire with holy water and then threw the sulphur and pitch into the fire, each action being accompanied by a distinct prayer. Finally the priest threw the instruments of witchcraft themselves into the fire.

  50. 50.

    Ibid. pp. 1244–5 (for the sick).

  51. 51.

    Ibid. pp. 1245–6.

  52. 52.

    Ibid. pp. 1268–72.

  53. 53.

    Ibid. pp. 1253–64.

  54. 54.

    Ibid. p. 1257.

  55. 55.

    For Lavater’s condemnation of Catholic teachings on apparitions of the dead see Lavater, L., De spectris, lemuribus et magnis insolitis fragoribus (Leiden, 1659 [1570]), pp. 111–23. On Lavater see Chesters, T., Ghost Stories in Late Renaissance France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 77–83.

  56. 56.

    Thyraeus, P., Benedictio domus novae aut daemonibus infestae in Daemoniaci cum locis infestis et terriculamentis nocturnis (Cologne 1604), pp. 242–54.

  57. 57.

    For a translation of this rite see, ‘Appendix: The Exorcism of Haunted Houses’ in Thurston, H. (ed. J. H. Crehan), Ghosts and Poltergeists (London: Burns and Oates, 1953), pp. 204–8.

  58. 58.

    Bullarum diplomatum et privilegiorum sanctorum Romanorum Pontificium Taurinensis editio (Turin: A. Vecco, 1863), vol. 6, pp. 648–9: Etiam in corporibus obsessis vel lymphaticis et fanaticis mulieribus daemones de futuris vel occultis rebus aut factis exquirunt, ut merito ab eis, quos Dominus in Evangelio tacere imperavit, vanas mendacesque referent responsiones.

  59. 59.

    On Fray Alonso see Weber, A., ‘Demonizing Ecstasy: Alonso de la Fuente and the Alumbrados of Extremadura’ in Boenig, R. (ed.), The Mystical Gesture: Essays on Medieval and Early Modern Spiritual Culture in Honor of Mary E. Giles (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000), pp. 141–58; Weber, A., ‘The Inquisitor, the Flesh, and the Devil: Alumbradismo and Demon Possession’ in De Waardt et al. (2005), pp. 177–89.

  60. 60.

    Weber (2005), p. 182.

  61. 61.

    Ibid. p. 180.

  62. 62.

    Ibid. p. 185.

  63. 63.

    Green, T., Inquisition: The Reign of Fear, 2nd edn (London: Pan MacMillan, 2008), pp. 9–10; Baroja, J. C., ‘Witchcraft and Catholic Theology’ in Ankarloo, B. and Henningsen, G. (eds), Early Modern European Witchcraft: Centres and Peripheries (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 19–43, at pp. 40–2.

  64. 64.

    Lederer (2005), pp. 224–7.

  65. 65.

    Suárez, F., De malis angelis 16.29, in Opera omnia (Paris: Vivès, 1856), vol. 2, p. 1066.

  66. 66.

    Ibid. 18.7 (pp. 1066–7): Certissimum est, etiam nunc daemonum multitudinem in hoc aere versari; nam … nunc etiam daemones vexant homines, etiam fideles, et ideo ab Ecclesia obsessi exorcizantur. Dicendum est, daemonem non dici ligari quoad detentionem personae in certo loco, sed quoad usum potestatis tentandi homines … non quod omnino non sinantur homines tentare, aut vexare, contrarium enim constat (ut dixi), sed quia non permittuntur tentare quantum possunt et cupiunt, nec quantum ante Adventum Christi solebant. Maximeque ligati sunt hoc modo respectu Christianorum et membrorum Ecclesiae Christi, et praesertim praedestinatorum, ut vult Augustinus.

  67. 67.

    Suárez, De malis angelis 18.8: non solum videtur ligata potestas daemonum respectu praedestinatorum post Christi adventum, sed etiam antea, propter Christi merita praevisa; nunquam enim permissus est daemon ita electos tentare.

  68. 68.

    Suárez, De malis angelis 18.9–10.

  69. 69.

    Del Rio (2000 [1595]), pp. 115–16. On Del Rio see now Machielsen, J., Martin Delrio: Demonology and Scholarship in the Counter-Reformation (Oxford: British Academy, 2015).

  70. 70.

    Martin, A. L., The Jesuit Mind: The Mentality of an Elite in Early Modern France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), pp. 136–40.

  71. 71.

    Kelly (1968), p. 87. On Thyraeus see Lederer (2005), p. 221.

  72. 72.

    See, for example, the exorcism of Anna de la Haye performed by Jesuits in Bavaria in 1664 (Johnson, T., ‘Besessenheit, Heiligkeit und Jesuitspiritualität’ in De Waardt et al. (2005), pp. 234–47). On the Jesuit approach to exorcism see also De Waardt (2009), pp. 344–59; Young (2013), pp. 203–9.

  73. 73.

    Santori, G. A., Rituale sacramentorum Romanum Gregorii XIII Pont. Max. iussu editum (Rome, 1584), pp. 672–712. On the development of the Rituale of 1614 see Sodi, M. and Flores Arcas, J. J., ‘Introduzione’ in Rituale Romanum Editio Princeps (1614), Monumenta Liturgica Concilii Tridentini 5 (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2004), pp. xxxvi–xlii; Haag, H., Teufelsglaube (Tübingen: Katzmann, 1974), pp. 391–439; Dondelinger-Mandy, P., ‘Le rituel des exorcismes dans le Rituale Romanum de 1614’, Le Maison-Dieu 183/184 (1990), pp. 99–121; Sluhovsky (2007), pp. 87–8.

  74. 74.

    RR 861–2: Sacerdos, seu quis alius legitimus Ecclesiae minister … ex probatis auctoribus, & ex usu nosse studeat.

  75. 75.

    Sluhovsky (2007), pp. 88–9.

  76. 76.

    Ferber (2004), pp. 63–9.

  77. 77.

    RR 863: In primis, ne facile credat, aliquem a daemone obsessum esse; sed nota habeat ea signa, quibus obsessus disgnoscitur ab iis, qui vel atra bile, vel morbo alio laborant.

  78. 78.

    RR 879: Iubeatque daemonem dicere, an detineatur in illo corpore ob aliquam operam magicam, aut malefica signa, vel instrumenta, quae si obsessus ore sumpserit, evomat; vel si alibi extra corpus fuerint, ea revelet, & inventa comburantur.

  79. 79.

    Ferber (2004), p. 12.

  80. 80.

    RR 873, 871.

  81. 81.

    RR 870, 878.

  82. 82.

    RR 881.

  83. 83.

    Midelfort, H. C. E., ‘Natur und Besessenheit: Natürliche Erklärungen für Besessenheit von der Melancholie bis Magnetismus’ in De Waardt et al. (2005), pp. 73–87, at pp. 84–7.

  84. 84.

    Kelly (2006), p. 306.

  85. 85.

    Nicuesa (1639), pp. 1–15.

  86. 86.

    Sluhovsky (2007), pp. 91–3.

  87. 87.

    On ‘convent possession’ see Hallett, N. (ed.), Witchcraft, Exorcism and the Politics of Possession in a Seventeenth-Century Convent: ‘How Sister Ursula was once bewitched and Sister Margaret twice’ (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), pp. 17–18; Sluhovsky (2007), pp. 233–64.

  88. 88.

    Michaelis, S., (trans. W. B.), The Admirable History of the Possession and Conversion of a Penitent Woman (London, 1613), pp. 1–116. On the Gaufridy case see Marshman, M., ‘Exorcism as Empowerment: A New Idiom’, Journal of Religious History 23 (1999), pp. 265–81; Ferber (2004), pp. 70–88; Po-chia Hsia, R., The World of Catholic Renewal, 1540–1770 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 155–8.

  89. 89.

    Ferber, S. and Howe, A., ‘The Man who Mistook his Wife for a Devil: Exorcism, Expertise and Secularisation in a Late Twentieth-Century Australian Criminal Court’ in De Waardt et al. (2005), pp. 281–92.

  90. 90.

    De Certeau (1980), pp. 21, 24.

  91. 91.

    Ibid. p. 25.

  92. 92.

    Ibid. pp. 29–31.

  93. 93.

    Ibid. pp. 57–8.

  94. 94.

    Ibid. pp. 58–9.

  95. 95.

    Ibid. pp. 60–3.

  96. 96.

    Ibid. pp. 65–7.

  97. 97.

    Ibid. pp. 67–8.

  98. 98.

    Ibid. pp. 39–42.

  99. 99.

    Véritable Relation des justes Procédures observées au fait de la Possession des Ursulines à Loudun et au procès de Grandier (Paris, 1634), pp. 310–32. On the political state of Loudun see De Certeau (1980), pp. 99–114.

  100. 100.

    De Certeau (1980), pp. 76–7.

  101. 101.

    On Grandier’s trial see ibid. pp. 81–96, 117–26.

  102. 102.

    Ibid. p. 130.

  103. 103.

    For the text of Killigrew’s letter see Lough, J. and Crane, D. E. L., ‘Thomas Killigrew and the Possessed Nuns of Loudun: the text of a letter of 1635’, Durham University Journal 78 (1986), pp. 259–68.

  104. 104.

    De Certeau (1980), pp. 135–40.

  105. 105.

    Frankfurter (2008), pp. 27–8. The creation of a complete list of possessing demons formed part of the exorcism of two English Carmelite nuns, Elizabeth and Margaret Mostyn, at Lierre in 1651 (Hallett (2007), pp. 92–106). On the Lierre exorcisms see also Young (2013), pp. 209–17.

  106. 106.

    De Certeau (1980), pp. 158–9.

  107. 107.

    On the trial and execution of Grandier see ibid. pp. 225–62.

  108. 108.

    Ibid. pp. 265–75.

  109. 109.

    Surin, J.-J. (ed. M. de Certeau), Triomphe de l’Amour Divine sur les Puissances de l’Enfer (Grenoble: J. Millon, 1990), p. 27.

  110. 110.

    On Surin see De Certeau, M., Les aventures de Jean-Joseph Surin (Grenoble, 1990); Marin, J. M., ‘A Jesuit Mystic’s Feminine Melancholia: Jean-Joseph Surin SJ (1600–1665)’, Journal of Men, Masculinities and Spirituality 1 (2007), pp. 65–76.

  111. 111.

    On Marie des Vallées see Ferber (2004), pp. 127–35; Lecouturier, Y., Sorciers, Sorcières et Possédés en Normandie: procès en sorcellerie du Moyen Âge au XVIIIe siècle (Rennes: Editions Ouest-France, 2012), pp. 107–13.

  112. 112.

    On sceptical responses to exorcism in the early seventeenth century see Pearl, J. L., ‘French Catholic Demonologists and their Enemies in the Late Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries’, Church History 52 (1983), pp. 457–67, at pp. 460–6.

  113. 113.

    On the Synod of Rheims and its political implications see Pearl (1999), p. 50.

  114. 114.

    Kaptchuk, T. J., Kerr, C. E. and Zanger, A., ‘The Art of Medicine: Placebo Controls, Exorcisms, and the Devil’, The Lancet 374 (October 2004), pp. 1234–5.

  115. 115.

    Metzger, N., ‘Incubus as an Illness: Taming the Demonic by Medical Means in Late Antiquity and Beyond’ in Raiswell, R. and Dendle, P. (eds.), The Devil in Society in Pre-Modern Europe (Toronto: Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, 2012), pp. 483–510.

  116. 116.

    Sluhovsky (2007), p. 93.

  117. 117.

    Quoted in De Certeau (1980), p. 214: ‘Cependant saint Thomas et les plus grands théologiens tiennent que le diable ne peut connaître ce que nous pensons intérieurement’.

  118. 118.

    BL MS Add. 8289 fols 340r–352r.

  119. 119.

    Ibid. fol. 340r: hac potestas et hac fides non est Uni Clericorum ordinis alljgata cum sit gratia gratis data solita etiam â Deo datj foeminis, non debet ordinaria potestas nostrorum Exorcistarum fundarj proximie in hac Christi promissione.

  120. 120.

    Ibid. fol. 342r. Franz (1909), vol. 1, p. 15 held a similar view in the twentieth century: ‘Sacramentals are in their elements of Christ, but in their concrete identity they are founded by the Church’.

  121. 121.

    BL MS Add. 8289, fol. 340v.

  122. 122.

    On exorcism as ex opere operantis see Sluhovsky (2007), p. 69.

  123. 123.

    BL MS Add. 8289, fols. 341r–v.

  124. 124.

    Ibid. fol. 342v: At coactus vi Exorcismorum non â seipso et sponte suâ sed Virtute divinj nominis per Ecclesiam invocatj Loquitur.

  125. 125.

    Ibid. fols 342v–343r: â pluribus oculatis et auritis testibus mecum in collegio de eventibus arrepi.

  126. 126.

    G. T. referred to an account of the Nantes demoniacs by Jean Guéret; I have been able to identify no published works by this author.

  127. 127.

    Ibid. fols 344r–345r.

  128. 128.

    Ibid. fol. 346v.

  129. 129.

    Ibid. fols 348r–v.

  130. 130.

    Ibid. fols 350r–352r.

  131. 131.

    On the Louviers possessions see Ferber (2004), pp. 89–112; Lecouturier (2012), pp. 73–106.

  132. 132.

    On the controversy following the Louviers possessions see Lecouturier (2012), pp. 90–105.

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Young, F. (2016). Exorcism in Counter-Reformation Europe. In: A History of Exorcism in Catholic Christianity. Palgrave Historical Studies in Witchcraft and Magic. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29112-3_4

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