Abstract
This suggestion had an immediate impact in the popular press. On January 8, 1986, only two days after the publication of the Fischbach paper, a headline in the New York Times announced, “Hints of Fifth Force in Nature Challenge Galileo’s Findings.” This was the naming of the “Fifth Force.” On January 15, an editorial in the Los Angeles Times discussed the subject. They cited the skepticism of Richard Feynman, a Nobel Prize winner in physics. Feynman’s skepticism concerned the factor of 15 difference (a more careful analysis suggested a factor of 35) between the force needed to explain the Eötvös data and that needed to explain the gravitational mine data. Feynman was bothered more by this discrepancy than Fischbach had been. Feynman expressed this concern in a letter published in the January 23 Los Angeles Times, and also in a longer and more detailed letter to Fischbach. He agreed that there were possible ways to make the results agree, but regarded them as unlikely. He also questioned the statistical significance of the results claimed in the Eötvös reanalysis. Fischbach answered by pointing out the important effect of local mass asymmetry, discussed below.
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Notes
- 1.
This referred to the composition dependence of the suggested force, which implied that different substances would fall at different rates.
- 2.
The other four forces were the strong, or nuclear, force, the electromagnetic force, the weak force, and the gravitational force.
- 3.
Feynman felt that the editorial citation did not convey his real meaning and wrote the following letter. I quote this letter at length not only because it gives a view of the Fifth Force, but also because it illustrates Feynman’s views on the methodology of science.
You reported in an editorial ‘The Wonder of It All’ about a proposal to explain some small irregularities in an old (1909) experiment (by Eötvös) as being due to a new ‘fifth force.’ You correctly said I didn’t believe it—but brevity didn’t give you a chance to tell why. Lest your readers get to think that science is decided simply by opinion of authorities, let me expand here.
If the effects seen in the old Eötvös experiment were due to the ‘fifth force’ proposed by Prof. Fischbach and his colleagues, with a range of 600 feet it would have to be so strong that it would have had effects in experiments already done. For example, measurements of gravity force in deep mines agree with expectations to about 1 % (whether this remaining deviation indicates a need for modification of Newton’s Law of gravitation is a tantalizing question). But the ‘fifth force’ proposed in the new paper would mean we should have found a deviation of at least 15 %. This calculation is made in the paper by the authors themselves (a more careful analysis gives 30 %). Although the authors are aware of this (as confirmed by a telephone conversation) they call this ‘surprisingly good agreement’, while it, in fact, shows they cannot be right.
Such new ideas are always fascinating, because physicists wish to find out how Nature works. Any experiment which deviates from expectations according to known laws commands immediate attention because we may find something new.
But it is unfortunate that a paper containing within itself its own disproof should have gotten so much publicity. Probably it is a result of the authors’ over-enthusiasm.
This letter was written before the importance of local mass anomalies was pointed out.
- 4.
Fischbach gave me a copy of this letter.
- 5.
The hyperphoton was the presumed carrier of the new force.
- 6.
The editors of Physical Review Letters noted a similar letter had also been received from K. Hayashi and T. Shirafuji.
- 7.
Detailed calculations based on the local mass distribution were presented in Fischbach et al. (1988).
- 8.
As discussed later, Fischbach, Talmadge, and Aronson also discussed this at the time and their discussion was later published in Talmadge et al. (1986).
- 9.
Eötvös was a mountain climber and photographs indicate rather clearly that he did not weigh 300 pounds.
- 10.
This paper was presented at the March 1986 Moriond Workshop, but did not appear until 1987. The effect of local mass asymmetries was discussed earlier and included in a paper submitted, but not accepted for publication. The collaborators decided to include this calculation in the Moriond paper, even though it was not actually presented at the conference.
- 11.
In several measurements Eötvös used a brass vial to hold the sample of the material. In reporting the final results Eötvös multiplied the measured value of \(\Delta k\) by a factor \((M_{\mathrm{sample}} + M_{\mathrm{container}})/M_{\mathrm{sample}}\). This assumed that the container had no effect on the measurement. This was a reasonable procedure if one is interested in setting an upper limit, but might overestimate the effect. Similarly, one might also include the composition of the container in calculating \(\Delta (B/\mu )\). As Fischbach et al. (1988) later showed, and supported by De Rujula’s (1986b) analysis, it makes little difference to the slope of the line \(\Delta k\) against \(\Delta (B/\mu )\) whether or not one includes the effect of the brass vials, as long as one is consistent.
- 12.
He discounted this effect because he assumed that there were different systematic errors for different parts of the Eötvös data. He did not explain how these would give rise to a linear effect, nor did he consider whether or not these errors would affect the null result he favored.
- 13.
The analyses done by De Rujula and Fischbach were slightly different. Fischbach included a constant term in his fit, which, as one can see, is very small.
- 14.
De Rujula also plotted \(\Delta k\) against \(\Delta (Z/\mu )\), where Z is the atomic or lepton number. As shown in Fig. 2.2, he found no effect. He seems to have regarded this as casting doubt on the Fischbach reanalysis.
- 15.
This is an example of the Duhem–Quine problem. As Quine pointed out, any statement can be held to be true if one is willing to make modifications elsewhere in one’s knowledge. Bouchiat is stating that he thinks some modifications are unreasonable. One has to give up too much.
- 16.
“Active” gravitational mass is the mass that is the source of a gravitational field, while “passive” mass is the mass on which the gravitational force acts.
- 17.
Fischbach points out that this experiment was not, in fact, sensitive enough to set such a limit.
- 18.
Details appeared in Fischbach et al. (1988).
- 19.
I am discussing here the context of pursuit which involves using the hypothesis as the basis for further investigation. As discussed below, scientists who investigated the Fifth Force had varying attitudes toward its truth.
- 20.
Ordinary particles are divided into fermions, with half-integral spin, 1/2, 3/2, etc., and bosons with integral spin. Supersymmetry suggests that each particle has a supersymmetric analogue in the other class. Thus, an electron will have a supersymmetric analogue, the selectron, which instead of having spin 1/2 will have integral spin. Similarly, the spin one photon will have an analogue, the spin 1/2 photino.
- 21.
I will discuss later the idea of an enabling theory, one that assists in experimental design.
- 22.
I am grateful to Sam Aronson for providing me with a hard copy of the electronic mail used in this section. I should emphasize that neither he, nor Ephraim Fischbach or Carrick Talmadge, has made any suggestion as to how I might use this material.
- 23.
In what follows I will cite the electronic mail correspondence by giving the author of the letter and the date.
- 24.
It was still being assumed, incorrectly, that there would be an effect of a Fifth Force in the Eötvös experiment for a symmetrical Earth.
- 25.
The authors also noted that for a deformed, rather than a spherical, Earth, the effect on the Eötvös experiment would be rigorously zero.
- 26.
Aronson also remarked that (18 Feb) “it might be interesting to find those [the Lake Balaton experiments] but let’s leave that to future generations of paleophysicists.”
- 27.
A more detailed analysis of Renner’s data appeared later in the long paper (Fischbach et al. 1988).
- 28.
The group ultimately decided on a value of \((B/\mu ) = 1.00691\). See Fischbach et al. (1988, p. 38) for details.
- 29.
Recall that the original Fifth Force paper (Fischbach et al. 1986a) had stated that Dicke had raised this question.
- 30.
This was the fit contained in the letter. The published values were different depending on the data used and the method of fitting.
- 31.
The Eötvös measurements were made using three different methods. Method I assumed that both the torsion constant and the gravity gradients remained constant during the observations. Method II allowed the torsion constant to very slowly, and Method III allowed both the torsion constant and the gravity gradients to change with time. The measurements also used either a single-arm or double-arm torsion balance . (See Fischbach et al. (1988, pp. 11–12) for details.) Dicke thought that the different methods had different systematic effects and fitted the single-arm and double-arm data separately.
- 32.
Talmadge also noted that this might explain the exceptionally good fits that they had obtained.
- 33.
Fischbach’s talks were at TRIUMF, Stanford, Washington (Physics), Michigan, Michigan State, the National Science Foundation, Maryland, California (Berkeley), Washington (Geophysics), Cornell, Stony Brook, New York Academy of Sciences, the Lake Louise Conference, the Eleventh International Conference on Gravitation and Relativity, the Niels Bohr Institute, and the XXIII International Conference on High-Energy Physics. Aronson’s talks included three at CERN, Zurich, Oxford, Louvain, Rutherford Laboratory, Heidelberg, Berlin, Paris, Annecy, Padova, Brussels, and DESY.
I suspect that at least one of the reasons for giving so many talks was the desire of the collaborators to persuade others to work on the Fifth Force. As discussed later, they had some success.
- 34.
Fischbach has kept an accurate record of the talks he has given on the Fifth Force. By September 1990 the number had reached 62.
- 35.
The design change resulted in CERCA being eliminated as a provider of plates because their rolling mill was not wide enough for the wider plates required by the new design.
The email also shows other aspects of a physicist’s activities. As a senior scientist in the DO group, Aronson was also involved in the hiring of a post-doctoral research associate to work with the group. He was asked to look around at CERN for likely candidates and was also asked for his opinion of candidates.
- 36.
This is not to say that the process is not sometimes made to appear more rational than it actually was, that the story might seem more logical and inevitable in the public record, but that the evidential relations between experimental results and theory remain essentially the same.
- 37.
The Moriond Workshops were extremely important in the history of the Fifth Force. They were attended by many of those working on the force and provided both a formal exchange of information through the talks given, and an opportunity for informal discussion. For example, it was in these discussions that some of the experimental results were subjected to severe scrutiny and criticism, even by those whose results agreed. I attended the 1989 and 1990 workshops and heard this sort of discussion.
- 38.
The two papers were presented at the Moriond Workshop, 24–31 January, 1987 and were published in Physical Review Letters on 16 March 1987. Because the published version of the Moriond papers appeared later and was subject to later emendation I will use the PRL papers as the earliest results. In addition, the papers were submitted to PRL before the Moriond Conference, on 5 December 1986 (Thieberger) and 30 December 1986 (Stubbs). There are no major differences, although the Moriond papers contain greater detail on some points.
- 39.
One may speculate that the disagreement between the two results led to more work on the Fifth Force. Had the results agreed that there was no Fifth Force it might very well have settled the issue. Of course, had both experiments shown the presence of the force then further work would, no doubt, have followed.
- 40.
Nevertheless, such a positive result might lead one to question the validity of Thieberger’s result for the Palisades. With no cliff present, one expects zero velocity and a positive result might indicate the presence of systematic effects that were unaccounted for.
- 41.
This was assuming the effective cliff orientation obtained by averaging over ± 150 m. In a note added Thieberger noted that M.J. Good had pointed out that the Coriolis force on the sphere was not totally negligible. When this was included using the 150 m average the agreement was slightly less satisfactory. Using a ± 50 m average and including the Coriolis effect actually improved the agreement. Some wag later remarked that all this experiment showed was that any sensible float wanted to leave New Jersey.
- 42.
Details of this model were given in Thieberger (1987b).
- 43.
E. Adelberger, one of the senior members of the Washington group, remarked that the point of the PRL graph was to show the absence of any Fifth Force effect, even for a value of α much smaller than that needed for the geophysical or Eötvös data. He noted that, in retrospect, the PRL graph did not show this as well as they would have liked, so that in the Moriond paper a more realistic value of α was used (private communication). At Moriond, Stacey et al. (1987a) suggested values of α between 0.007 and 0.013, depending on the range of the force chosen.
- 44.
I am grateful to Jim Woodward for helpful discussions of this point.
- 45.
Keyser (1989) also considered a thermal convection explanation of Thieberger’s results. This will be discussed below.
- 46.
A similar suggestion had also been made by Vecsernyes (1987).
- 47.
The isospin of a nucleus depends on the difference between the number of protons Z and the number of neutrons N in the nucleus. Thus I 3, the third component of isospin, is \((Z - N)/2\).
- 48.
β is a parameter used by Boynton and does not refer to v∕c. In Boynton’s terminology β = 0 corresponds to a coupling to isospin.
- 49.
As discussed below, Boynton later regarded this result as “marginally observed”.
- 50.
Further checks on the apparatus were also performed. The composition dipole axis was occasionally rotated 180∘ relative to the housing and the optics and half of each major data set was acquired in this “reversed” mode. This guarded against any effects dependent on instrument-pendulum orientation. No significant effect was seen. They also looked for correlations between the data and other observables: time of day, housing temperature, change in housing temperature, rank order of a measurement in a given day, etc. “No significant correlations are present in the data.”
- 51.
Interestingly, Science magazine reported that Hsui’s results confirmed the existence of the Fifth Force (Science 237, 819). A later letter by Zumberge and Parker (1987) pointed out that because of the large uncertainty Hsui’s result was indeed inconclusive.
- 52.
For a discussion of the confirmation provided by the “same” and “different” experiments see Franklin and Howson (1984).
- 53.
Kuhn and Kruglyak (1987) looked at modifications of Newton’s law at planetary and cosmological distances and found them to be consistent with existing observational constraints. This was not the Fifth Force, the distance scale was much larger, but the authors noted that it was suggested to them by work on that force.
- 54.
- 55.
These results were first presented at the December 1987 meeting of the American Geophysical Union.
- 56.
Eckhardt also quoted Airy (1856, p. 299) on the difficulties of gravity measurements: “We were raising the lower pendulum up the South Shaft for the purpose of interchanging the two pendulums, when (from causes of which we are yet ignorant) the straw in which the pendulum-box was packed took fire, lashings burnt away, and the pendulum with some other apparatus fell to the bottom. This terminated our operations of 1826.”
- 57.
Shortly after the 1988 workshop the detailed renalysis of the Eötvös experiment (Fischbach et al. 1988) appeared. This paper also discussed the existing evidential uncertainty.
- 58.
At the Grossmann conference Eckhardt et al. (1989b) presented data similar to those presented at Moriond, although the value for the discrepancy had changed slightly to (−547 ± 36) μGal. Thomas et al. (1989) presented data from both boreholes and a tower at the Nevada Test Site that showed gravitational anomalies. Once again they attributed this to defects in their theoretical model and urged great care in the use of such models, particularly in the acquisition of sufficient surface gravity measurements.
- 59.
Recall that α was defined by the equation
$$\displaystyle{ V = -Gm_{1}m_{2}/r(1 +\alpha \mathrm{ e}^{-r/\lambda })\;, }$$while \(\xi\) was defined by
$$\displaystyle{ V = -Gm_{1}m_{2}/r(1 -\xi q_{1}q_{2}\mathrm{e}^{-r/\lambda })\;, }$$where \(q =\cos \theta _{5}(B/\mu ) +\sin \theta _{5}(2Iz/\mu )\). (B∕μ) is very close to 1 for all substances, so for \(\theta _{5} = 0,\alpha \approx -\xi\).
- 60.
The Greenland result was not included in the published conference proceedings.
- 61.
This result was also published later, as discussed below.
- 62.
- 63.
In most cases the papers presented at the Moriond workshop were published elsewhere later. I will give both references initially, and if there are any significant changes I will discuss them when the second paper was published, which was the time the information became generally available to the physics community.
- 64.
Such a bias is not unheard of and in a recent experiment the same check was made. It indicated that such a bias may very well have been present. See Franklin (1986, p. 170).
- 65.
Adelberger noted that the precision of their result on the equality of fall toward the Earth now matched the precision of the Roll, Krotkov, Dicke result on the equality of fall toward the Sun.
- 66.
The critics were right. In 1990, Jekeli, Eckhardt, and Romaides completely withdrew their claim of the observation of non-Newtonian gravity.
- 67.
As seen from my earlier discussion, Fischbach and I have different views on the value of a variety of evidence.
- 68.
To show that publication date may not reflect the real history, I note that the Bartlett and Tew paper was published on 15 July 1989, after the conference had been held. It was, however, submitted on 3 January 1989.
- 69.
Although, as discussed later, some new results would be published after the workshop, and some previously reported work as well as papers presented at the workshop would be published later, nothing really new was presented.
- 70.
Not everyone present at the workshop agreed. Although few, if any, scientists believe that there is anything pathological about the site of Thieberger’s experiment, some nagging doubts remain. At the 1990 Moriond Workshop a petition was circulated asking Thieberger to repeat his experiment at the Palisades cliff, which had a considerable number of signatures. As of the moment, Theiberger has not repeated his experiment.
- 71.
Boynton listed his collaborators: S. Aronson, P. Ekstrom, D. Crosby, A. Eberhart, E. Lindahl, P. Peters, and M. Wensman.
- 72.
Boynton disagreed with the conclusion expressed in Heckel et al. (1989).
- 73.
Everyone would certainly agree that this statement applies to the originally proposed Fifth Force—a force approximately 1 % that of normal gravity, with a range of the order of 100 m. Recall Fackler’s comment at the 1990 workshop: “The Fifth Force is dead.” As discussed below, however, experimental work is still continuing with the goal of setting more stringent limits on such a force or perhaps even of finding one.
Those physicists who worked on the Fifth Force always considered themselves as outsiders within the physics community and believed their work was not regarded as valuable. As evidence of this I present a proposed letter to Dear Abby that was circulated within the group, dated March 7, 1990. The letter was written and circulated by Don Eckardt, who based it on something he had read earlier, although he doesn’t recall what that was.
Dear Abby,
I have a problem. I have two brothers, one who is a scientist doing research on the Fifth Force and another who is sentenced to death in the electric chair for a series of homosexual rapes and murders. My mother died from insanity when I was three years old. She had syphilis and I think that I caught it from her. My two sisters are prostitutes, and my father is now selling pornography and kinky sexual paraphernalia following his bust for retailing narcotics. Recently I met a young girl who had just been released from an institution for the criminally insane where she had served time for smothering her illegitimate child. I love this girl very much and I want to marry her. She loves me too, even though I have AIDS. My problem is this: should I tell her about my brother who is working on the Fifth Force?
Yours truly,
Bewildered
- 74.
I have already mentioned extensive discussions with Ephraim Fischbach and Sam Aronson. I also had an opportunity to speak with other participants at the Moriond Workshops of 1989 and 1990.
- 75.
Adelberger had been awarded the Bonner Prize of the American Physical Society for his work in nuclear physics.
- 76.
It might be suggested that given the subsequent demise of the Fifth Force that the participants may now report views that differ from those they held at the time. That they may now claim never to have believed in the Fifth Force even if they had originally held more positive views. There is always a danger that people may recount a story in the manner that makes them look best. I don’t believe that this is a problem in this case because the views expressed are consistent with those given by the participants at the Moriond workshops, before the issue was resolved.
- 77.
In fact, the earliest run of the Eöt-Wash experiment actually gave a positive result. The series of negative results reported by this group were among the strongest arguments against the existence of a Fifth Force. Adelberger, who was informed of this result by telephone while he was visiting at the University of Wisconsin, was “tremendously surprised”. The experimenters then rotated the mirror in the apparatus by 90∘ (see Fig. 2.6) and found that the signal did not change phase as it was expected to if it were a valid signal. A systematic source of error was subsequently found and corrected.
- 78.
The authors go on to discuss the anomalous results (Adelberger et al. 1991, p. 306):
Although reports of positive effects by Thieberger and by Boynton et al. have not been retracted, these authors themselves do not claim evidence for new physics. However, because no two experiments are alike, there is always the possibility that the positive effects occurred because some special feature of the detectors or sources used by Thieberger or Boynton et al. allow them to see new physics that was not detected in other experiments.
They then discuss the possibility of more complex Fifth Force scenarios, including coupling to quantities other than baryon number, and multicomponent Yukawa potentials, or non-Yukawa potentials. They conclude [p. 306]: “We prefer to adopt ‘Occam’s razor’ and, until the positive results have been reproduced, assume they are due to as yet unidentified systematic errors in very difficult experiments.” This discussion does not, I believe, alter the conclusion that there is no Fifth Force.
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Franklin, A., Fischbach, E. (2016). … and Fall. In: The Rise and Fall of the Fifth Force. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28412-5_2
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