Skip to main content

The Jefferson Scale of Empathy

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Empathy in Health Professions Education and Patient Care

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 89.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Alcorta-Garza, A., Gonzalez-Guerrero, J. F., Tavitas-Herrera, S. E., Rodrigues-Lara, F. J., & Hojat, M. (2005). Validación de la escala de empatia medica de Jefferson en estudiantes de medicina Mexicanos [Validity of the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy among Mexican medical students]. Salud Mental [Mental Health], 28, 57–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anastasi, A. (1976). Psychological testing. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J. J., & Wothke, W. (1999). Amos 4.0 user’s guide. Chicago, IL: SPSS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arora, S., Ashrafian, H., Davis, R., Athanasiou, T., Darzi, A., & Sevdalis, N. (2010). Emotional intelligence in medicine: A systematic review through the context of the ACGME competencies. Medical Education, 44, 749–764. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03709.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ashworth, C. D., Williamson, P., & Montano, D. (1984). A scale to measure physician beliefs about psychosocial aspects of patient care. Social Science & Medicine, 19, 1235–1238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, E. J., Evans, P., Goldwater, R., & Potter, V. (2005). A preliminary study of emotional intelligence, empathy and exam performance in first year medical students. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 1395–1405. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.04.014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baggaley, A. R. (1983). Deciding on the ratio of number of subjects to number of variables in factor analysis. Multivariate Experimental Clinical Research, 6, 81–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (2003). The essential difference: The truth about the male and female brain. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beattie, A., Durham, J., Harvey, J., Steele, J., & McHanwell, S. (2012). Does empathy change in first-year dental students? European Journal of Dental Education, 16, e111–e116. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0579.2011.00683.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berg, K., Blatt, B., Lopreiato, J., Jung, J., Schaeffer, A., Heil, D., … Hojat, M. (2015). Standardized patient assessment of medical students empathy: Ethnicity and gender effects in a multi-institutional study. Academic Medicine, 90, 105–111. doi:10.1097/ACM0000000000000529.

  • Berg, K., Majdan, J. F., Berg, D., Veloski, J., & Hojat, M. (2011a). A comparison of students’ self-reported empathy with simulated patients’ assessment of the students’ empathy. Medical Teacher, 33, 388–391. doi:10.3109/0142159x.2010.530319.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berg, K., Majdan, J., Berg, D., Veloski, J., & Hojat, M. (2011b). Medical students’ self-reported empathy and simulated patients’ assessments of student empathy: An analysis by gender and ethnicity. Academic Medicine, 86, 984–988. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182224f1f.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bohart, A. C., Elliot, R., Greenberg, L. S., & Watson, J. C. (2002). Empathy. In J. C. Norcross (Ed.), Psychotherapy relationships that work: Therapist contributions and responsiveness to patients (pp. 89–108). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brazeau, C. M. L. R., Schroeder, R., Rovi, S., & Boyd, L. (2010). Relationship between medical student burnout, empathy, and professionalism climate. Academic Medicine, 85, s33–s36. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181ed4c47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brislin, R. W. (1970). Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1, 185–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brockhouse, R., Msetfi, R. M., Cohen, K., & Joseph, S. (2011). Vicarious exposure to trauma and growth in therapists: The moderating effects of sense of coherence, organizational support, and empathy. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24, 735–742. doi:10.1002/jts.20704.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T., Boyle, M., Williams, B., Molloy, A., Palermo, C., McKenna, L., & Molloy, L. (2011). Predictors of empathy in health science students. Journal of Allied Health, 40, 143–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calabrese, L. H., Bianco, J. A., Mann, D., Massello, D., & Hojat, M. (2013). Correlates and changes in empathy and attitudes toward interprofessional collaboration in osteopathic medical students. The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association, 113, 898–907. doi:10.7556/jaoa.2013.068.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cattle, R. B. (1966). The scree test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1, 245–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, D. C. R., Kirshenbaum, D. S., Yan, J., Kirshenbaum, E., & Aseltine, R. H. (2012). Characterizing changes in student empathy throughout medical school. Medical Teacher, 34, 305–311. doi:10.3109/0142159X.2012.644600.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, D., Lew, R., Hershman, W., & Orlander, J. (2007). A cross-sectional measurement of medical student empathy. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22, 1434–1438. doi:10.1007/s11606-007-0298-x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, Y., Lin, C. P., Liu, H. L., Hsu, Y. Y., Lim, K. E., Hung, D., & Decety, J. (2007). Expertise modulates the perception of pain in others. Current Biology, 17, 1708–1713.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1987). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colliver, J. A., Conlee, M. J., Verhulst, S. J., & Dorsey, J. K. (2010a). Rebuttals to critics of studies of the decline on empathy [Letter to the editor]. Academic Medicine, 85, 1813–1814.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colliver, J. A., Conlee, M. J., Verhulst, S. J., & Dorsey, J. K. (2010b). Reports of the decline of empathy during medical education are greatly exaggerated: A reexamination of the research. Academic Medicine, 85, 588–593.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, P., Alves, R., Neto, I., Marvão, P., Portela, M., & Costa, M. J. (2014). Associations between medical student empathy and personality: A multi-institutional study. PLoS One, 9(3), e89254. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089254.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrea, R. B. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI): Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16, 297–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, S. A., Savitz, L. A., & Konrad, T. R. (2001). Reported response rates to mailed physician questionnaires. Health Sciences Research, 35, 1347–1355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cyphert, F. R., & Gant, W. L. (1970). The Delphi technique: A tool for collecting opinions in teacher education. The Journal of Teacher Education, 21, 417–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 113–126.Davies M. F. (2003). Confirmatory bias in the evaluation of personality descriptions: Positive test strategies and output inference. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 736-744. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.736

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, M. H. (1994). Empathy: A social psychological approach. Boulder, CO: Westview.

    Google Scholar 

  • Del Canale, S., Louis, D. Z., Maio, V., Wang, X., Rossi, G., Hojat, M., & Gonnella, J. S. (2012). The relationship between physician empathy and disease complications: An empirical study of primary care physicians and their diabetic patients in Parma, Italy. Academic Medicine, 87, 1243–1249. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182628fbf.

    Google Scholar 

  • DiLillo, M., Cicchetti, A., Lo Scalzo, A., Taroni, F., & Hojat, M. (2009). The Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy: Preliminary psychometrics and group comparisons in Italian physicians. Academic Medicine, 84, 1198–1202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diseker, R. A., & Michielutte, R. (1981). An analysis of empathy in medical students before and following clinical experience. Journal of Medical Education, 56, 1004–1010.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duff, P. (2002). Professionalism in medicine: An A–Z primer. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 99, 1127–1128.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, A. L. (1957). The social desirability variable in personality assessment and research. New York: Dryden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, B. J., Stanley, R. O., & Burrows, G. D. (1993). Measuring medical students’ empathy skills. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 66, 121–133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L. (1964). Conflict, decision, and dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fields, S. K., Mahan, P., Hojat, M., Tillman, P., & Maxwell, K. (2011). Measuring empathy in healthcare profession students using the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy: Health Provider-Student Version. Journal of Interprofessional Care, 25, 287–293. doi:10.3109/13561820.2011.566648.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fjortoft, N., Van Winkle, L. J., & Hojat, M. (2011). Measuring empathy in pharmacy students. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 75(6). Article 109. doi:10.5688/ajpe756109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forouzan, I., & Hojat, M. (1993). Stability and change of interest in obstetrics and gynecology among medical students: Eighteen years of longitudinal data. Academic Medicine, 68, 919–922.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Free, N. K., Green, B. L., Grace, M. C., Chernus, L. A., & Whitman, R. M. (1985). Empathy and outcome in brief focal dynamic therapy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 917–921.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geisinger, K. F. (1994). Cross-cultural normative assessment: Translation and adaptation issues influencing the normative interpretation of assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 6, 304–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glaser, K. M., Markham, F. W., Adler, H. M., McManus, R. P., & Hojat, M. (2007). Relationships between scores on the Jefferson scale of physician empathy, patient perceptions of physician empathy, and humanistic approaches to patient care: A validity study. Medical Science Monitor, 13, 291–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Golden, T. (2002). Acknowledging the masculine and feminine in offering support. In J. D. Morgan (Ed.), Social support: A reflection of humanity (pp. 73–84). Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorsuch, R. L. (1974). Factor analysis. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gough, H. G., & Hall, W. B. (1977). A comparison of physicians who did or did not respond to a postal questionnaire. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 777–780.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grosseman, S., Hojat, M., Duke, P. M., Mennin, S., Rosenzweig, S., & Novack, D. (2014). Empathy, self-reflection, and curriculum choice. The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 8, 35–41. Retrieved from: http:/dx.doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grosseman, S., Novack, D. H., Duke, P., Mennin, S., Rosenzweig, S., Davis, T., & Hojat, M. (2014). Residents’ and standardized patients’ perspectives on empathy: Issues of agreement. Patient Education and Counseling, 96, 22–28. Retrieved from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2014.04.007.

  • Guillemin, F., Bombardier, C., & Beaton, D. (1993). Cross-cultural adaptation of health-related quality of life measures: Literature review and proposed guidelines. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 46, 1417–1432.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hasan, S. H., Babar, M. G., Chen, K. K., Ahmed, S. I., & Mitha, S. (2013). An assessment of pharmacy students’ empathy levels in Malaysia. Journal of Advanced Pharmacy Education & Research, 3, 531–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herman, J. (2000). Reading for empathy. Medical Hypotheses, 54, 167–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Bianco, J. A., Mann, D., Massello, D., & Calabrese, L. H. (2015). Overlap between empathy, teamwork and integrative approach to patient care. Medical Teacher, 37, 755–758. doi:10.3109/0142159x.2014.971722.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Glaser, K., Xu, G., Veloski, J. J., & Christian, E. B. (1999). Gender comparisons of medical students’ psychosocial profile. Medical Education, 33, 342–349.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., & Gonnella, J. S. (2015). Eleven years of data on the Jefferson Scale of Empathy-Medical Student Version (JSE-S): Proxy norm data and tentative cutoff scores. Medical Principles and Practice, 24, 344–350. doi:10.1159/000381954. Retrieved from: http://www.karger.com/doi/10.1159/000381954.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Gonnella, J. S., Erdmann, J. B., & Vogel, W. H. (2003). Medical students’ cognitive appraisal of stressful life events as related to personality, physical well-being, and academic performance: A longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 219–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Gonnella, J. S., Mangione, S., Nasca, T. J., Veloski, J. J., Erdmann, J. B., … Magee, M. (2002). Empathy in medical students as related to academic performance, clinical competence and gender. Medical Education, 36, 522–527. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2923.2002.01234.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Gonnella, J. S., Nasca, T. J., Mangione, S., Veloski, J. J., & Magee, M. (2002a). The Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy: Further psychometric data and differences by gender and specialty at item level. Academic Medicine [Supplement], 77, S58–S60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Gonnella, J. S., Nasca, T. J., Mangione, S., Vergare, M., & Magee, M. (2002b). Physician empathy: Definition, components, measurement, and relationship to gender and specialty. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 1563–1569.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., & LaNoue, M. (2014). Exploration and confirmation of the latent variable structure of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy. International Journal of Medical Education, 5, 73–81. doi:10.5116/ijme.533f.0c41.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Louis, D. Z., Markham, F. W., Wender, R., Rabinowitz, C., & Gonnella, J. S. (2011). Physicians’ empathy and clinical outcomes in diabetic patients. Academic Medicine, 86, 359–364. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182086fe1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Louis, D. Z., Maxwell, K., Markham, F., Wender, R., & Gonnella, J. S. (2010). Patient perceptions of physician empathy, satisfaction with physician, interpersonal trust, and compliance. International Journal of Medical Education, 1, 83–87. doi:10.5116/ijme.4d00.b701.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Louis, D. Z., Maxwell, K., Markham, F., Wender, R., & Gonnella, J. S. (2011). A brief instrument to measure patient’s overall satisfaction with primary care physicians. Family Medicine, 43, 412–417.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Mangione, S., Kane, G., & Gonnella, J. S. (2005). Relationships between scores of the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy (JSPE) and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). Medical Teacher, 27, 625–628. doi:10.1080/01421590500069744.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Mangione, S., Nasca, T. J., Cohen, M. J. M., Gonnella, J. S., Erdmann, J. B., … Magee, M. (2001). The Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy: Development and preliminary psychometric data. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 61, 349–365.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Michalec, B., Veloski, J., & Tykocinski, M. L. (2015). Can empathy, other personality attributes, and level of positive social influence in medical school identify potential leaders in medicine? Academic Medicine, 90, 505–510. doi:10.1097/ACM.0000000000000652.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Nasca, T. J., Cohen, M. J. M., Fields, S. K., Rattner, S. L., Griffiths, M., … Garcia, A. (2001). Attitudes toward physician-nurse collaboration: A cross-cultural study of male and female physicians and nurses in the United States and Mexico. Nursing Research, 50, 123–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Paskin, D. L., Callahan, C. A., Nasca, T. J., Louis, D. Z., Veloski, J. J., … Gonnella, J. S. (2007). Components of postgraduate competence: Analyses of 30 years of longitudinal data. Medical Education, 41, 282–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Shapurian, R., Foroughi, D., Nayerahmadi, H., Farzaneh, M., Shafieyan, M., & Parsi, M. (2000). Gender differences in traditional attitudes toward marriage and the family: An empirical study of Iranian immigrants in the United States. Journal of Family Issues, 21, 419–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Shapurian, R., Nayerahmadi, H., Farzaneh, M., Foroughi, D., Parsi, M., & Azizi, M. (1999). Premarital sexual, childrearing, and family attitudes of Iranian men and women in the United States and in Iran. Journal of Psychology, 133, 19–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Vergare, M., Isenberg, G., Cohen, M., & Spandorfer, J. (2015a). Underlying construct of empathy, optimism, and burnout in medical students. International Journal of Medical Education, 6, 12–16. doi:10.5116/ijme.54c3.60cd.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Vergare, M., Isenberg, G., Cohen, M., & Spandorfer, J. (2015b). Underlying construct of empathy, optimism, and burnout in medical students. International Journal of Medical Education, 6, 12–16. doi:10.5116/ijme.54c3.60cd.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., & Xu, G. (2004). A visitor’s guide to effect sizes: Statistical versus practical (clinical) importance of research findings. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 9, 241–249.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hojat, M., Zuckerman, M., Gonnella, J. S., Mangione, S., Nasca, T., Vergare, M., & Magee, M. (2005). Empathy in medical students as related to specialty interest, personality, and perception of mother and father. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 1205–1215. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.04.007.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hong, M., Bahn, G. H., Lee, W. H., & Moon, S. J. (2011). Empathy in Korean psychiatric residents. Asia-Pacific Psychiatry, 3, 83–90. doi:10.1111/j.1758-5872.2011.00123x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hornblow, A. R., Kidson, M. A., & Jones, K. V. (1977). Measuring medical students’ empathy: A validation study. Medical Education, 11, 7–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hsiao, C. Y., Tsai, Y. F., & Kao, Y. C. (2012). Psychometric properties of a Chinese version of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy—Health Profession Students. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 12, 866–873. doi:10.1111/jpm.12024. Retrieved from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jpm.12024/pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3, 424–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, P. L., Brunet, E., Meltzoff, A. N., & Decety, J. (2006). Empathy examined through the neural mechanisms involved in imagining how I feel versus how you feel pain. Neuropsychologia, 44, 754–761.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, P. L., Rainville, P., & Decety, J. (2006). To what extent do we share the pain of others? Insight from the neural bases of pain empathy. Pain, 125, 5–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joreskog, K. G. (1993). Testing structural equation models. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser, H. (1960). The application of electronic computer factor analysis. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, 141–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kane, G. C., Gotto, J. L., Mangione, S., West, S., & Hojat, M. (2007). Jefferson Scale of Patient’s Perceptions of Physician Empathy: Preliminary psychometric data. Croatian Medicine Journal, 48, 81–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kataoka, H. U., Koide, N., Hojat, M., & Gonnella, J. S. (2012). Measurement and correlates of empathy among female Japanese physicians. BMC Medical Education, 12, 48. doi:10.1186/1472-6920-12-48. Retrieved from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6920/12/48.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kataoka, H., Koide, N., Ochi, K., Hojat, M., & Gonnella, J. S. (2009). Measurement of empathy among Japanese medical students: Psychometrics and score differences by gender and level of medical education. Academic Medicine, 84, 1192–1197.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (1998). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kliszcz, J., Nowicka-Sauer, K., Trzeciak, B., Nowak, P., & Sadowska, A. (2006). Empathy in health care providers–validation study of the Polish version of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy. Advances in Medical Sciences, 51, 219–225. Retrieved from: http://www.advms.pl/ms_2006/Kliszcz_J_et%20al_Empathy%20in%20health%20care%20providers.pdf.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kolenikov, S., & Bollen, K. A. (2012). Testing negative error variances: Is a Heywood case a symptom of misspecification? Sociological Methods & Research, 41, 124–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kunyk, D., & Olson, J. K. (2001). Clarification of conceptualizations of empathy. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 35, 317–325.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kupfer, D. J., Drew, F. L., Curtis, E. K., & Rubinstein, D. N. (1978). Personality style and empathy in medical students. Journal of Medical Education, 53, 507–509.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamothe, M., Boujut, E., Zenasni, F., & Sultan, S. (2014). To be or not to be empathic: The combined role of empathic concern and perspective taking in understanding burnout in general practice. BMC Family Practice, 15, 15. doi:10.1186/1471-2296-15-15. Retrieved from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2296/15/15.Lieberman, Matthew D. (2007) Social Cognitive Neuroscience: A Review of Core Processes. Annual Review of Psychology; 58, 259-289

  • Lief, H. I., & Fox, R. C. (1963). Training for “detached concerns” in medical students. In H. I. Lief, V. F. Lief, & N. R. Lief (Eds.), The psychological basis of medical practice (pp. 12–35). New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lieu, T. A., Schroeder, S. A., & Altman, D. F. (1989). Specialty choice at one medical school: Recent trends and analysis of predictive factors. Academic Medicine, 64, 622–629.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Likert, R. (1932). A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psychology, 140, 5–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linn, L. S., DiMatteo, M. R., Cope, D. W., & Robbins, A. (1987). Measuring physicians’ humanistic attitudes, values, and behaviors. Medical Care, 25, 504–515.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lipner, R. S., Blank, L. L., Leas, B. F., & Fortna, G. S. (2002). The value of patient and peer ratings in recertification. Academic Medicine, 77, S64–S66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magalhäes, E., Salgueira, A. P., Costa, P., & Costa, M. J. (2011). Empathy in senior year and first year medical students: A cross-sectional study. BMC Medical Education, 11, 52. doi:10.1186/1472-6920-11-52. Retrieved from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6920/11/52.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Magee, M., & Hojat, M. (1998). Personality profiles of male and female positive role models in medicine. Psychological Reports, 82, 547–559.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, R. (2007). The psychology of humor: An integrative approach. San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, R. A., & Lefcourt, H. M. (1983). Sense of humor as a moderator of the relation between stress and mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 1313–1324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, K. A., Batson, C. D., Horn, J., & Rosenman, R. H. (1981). Principles in his nature which interest him in the fortune of others: The heritability of empathic concern for others. Journal of Personality, 49, 237–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, D. A., & Feinstein, A. R. (1989). A new instrument for patients’ rating of physician performance in the hospital setting. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 4, 14–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLellan, M. F., & Husdon Jones, A. (1996). Why literature and medicine? Lancet, 348, 109–111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLellan, J. D., Jansen-McWilliams, L., Comer, D. M., Gardner, W. P., & Kelleher, K. J. (1999). The Physician Belief Scale and psychosocial problems in children: A report from the pediatric research in office settings and the ambulatory sentinel practice network. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 20, 24–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mehrabian, A., & Epstein, N. A. (1972). A measure of emotional empathy. Journal of Personality, 40, 525–543.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mehrabian, A., & O’Reilly, E. (1980). Analysis of personality measures in terms of basic dimensions of temperament. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 492–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mercer, S. W., Watt, G. C. M., & Reilly, D. (2001). Empathy is important for enablement. British Medical Journal, 322, 865.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery Hunter, K., Charon, R., & Coulehan, J. L. (1995). The study of literature in medical education. Academic Medicine, 70, 787–794.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nasr Esfahani, M., Behzadipour, M., Jalili Nadoushan, A., & Shariat, S. V. (2014). A pilot randomized controlled trial on the effectiveness of inclusion of a distant learning component into empathy training. Medical Journal of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 28(65), 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oppenheim, A. (1992). Questionnaire design: Interviewing and attitude measurement. London: Printer Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paro, H., Daud-Gallotti, R. M., Tiberio, I. C., Pinto, R. M. C., & Martins, M. A. (2012). Brazilian version of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy: Psychometric properties and factor analysis. BMC Medical Education, 12, 73.Paulhus, D.L. (1991). Measurement and control of response bias. In J. P. Robinson, P.R. Shaver, & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.). Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes (pp. 17-59). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pohl, C. A., Hojat, M., & Arnold, L. (2011). Peer nominations as related to academic attainment, empathy, and specialty interest. Academic Medicine, 86, 747–751. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e318217e464.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Polgar, C., & Thomas, S. (1988). Introduction to research in health sciences. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Preusche, I., & Wagner-Menghin, M. (2013). Rising to the challenge: Cross-cultural adaptation and psychometric evaluation of the adapted German version of the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy for students (JSPE-S). Advances in Health Science Education: Theory and Practice, 18, 573–587. doi:10.1007/s10459-012-9393-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prinz, W. (1997). Perception and action planning. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 9, 129–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reisetter, B. C. (2003). Relationship between psychosocial physician characteristic and physician price awareness. Doctoral dissertation, University of Mississippi, Dissertation Abstracts International, 63(10-B), p. 4620.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reiter-Palmon, R., & Connelly, M. S. (2000). Item selection counts: A comparison of empirical key and rational scale validities in theory-based and non-theory-based item pools. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 143–151.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, W. J. (2000). The measurement and development of empathy in nursing. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richard, F. D., Bond, C. F., Jr., & Stokes-Zoota, J. J. (2003). One hundred years of social psychology quantitatively described. Review of General Psychology, 7, 331–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, J. P. (1978). General attitudes toward people. In J. P. Robinson & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Measures of social psychological attitudes (pp. 587–627). Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roh, M. S., Hahm, B. J., Lee, D. H., & Suh, D. H. (2010). Evaluation of empathy among Korean medical students: A cross-sectional study using Korean version of the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy. Teaching and Learning in Medicine: An International Journal, 22, 167–171. doi:10.1080/10401334.2010.488191. Retrieved from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10401334.2010.488191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1957). Occupation and values. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. J., & Hovland, C. I. (1960). Cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of attitudes. In M. J. Hovland & M. J. Rosenberg (Eds.), Attitude organization and change (pp. 1–14). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shariat, S. V., & Habibi, M. (2013). Empathy in Iranian medical students: Measurement model of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy. Medical Teacher, 35, e913–e918. doi:10.3109/0142159x.2012.714881.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherif, C. W., Sherif, M., & Nebergall, R. E. (1965). Attitudes and attitude change: The social judgment-involvement approach. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherman, J. J., & Cramer, A. (2005). Measurement of changes in empathy during dental school. Journal of Dental Education, 69, 338–345.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smolarz, B. G. (2005). Determining the relationship between medical student empathy and undergraduate college major. Master’s degree thesis completed at the Albany Medical College, The Graduate College of Union University, Schenectady, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spiro, H. M., McCrea Curnen, M. G. M., Peschel, E., & St. James, D. (1993). Empathy and the practice of medicine: Beyond pills and the scalpel. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tavakol, S., Dennick, R., & Tavakol, M. (2011a). Empathy in UK medical students: Differences by gender, medical year and specialty interest. Education for Primary Care, 22, 297–303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tavakol, S., Dennick, R., & Tavakol, M. (2011b). Psychometric properties and confirmatory factor analysis of the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy. BMC Medical Education, 11, 54. doi:10.1186/1472-6920-11-54. Retrieved from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6920/11/54.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Thorndike, E. L. (1926). The measurement of intelligence. New York: Teacher’s College, Columbia University.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Vallabh, K. (2011). Psychometrics of the student version of the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy (JSPE-S) in final-year medical students in Johannesburg in 2008. South African Journal of Bioethics and Law, 4, 63–68. Retrieved from: http://www.sajbl.org.za/index.php/sajbl/article/view/164/140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Winkle, L. J., Fjortoft, N., & Hojat, M. (2012). Impact of a workshop about aging on the empathy scores of pharmacy and medical students. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 76(1), Article 9. doi:10.5688/ajpe7619. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3298407/.

    Google Scholar 

  • Velicer, W. F., & Fava, J. L. (1998). Effects of variables and subject sampling on factor pattern recovery. Psychological Methods, 3, 231–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Viviani, P. (2002). Motor competence in the perception of dynamic events: A tutorial. In W. Prinz & B. Hommel (Eds.), Common mechanisms in perception and action (pp. 406–442). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Voinescu, B. I., Szentagotai, A., & Coogan, A. (2009). Residents’ clinical empathy: Gender and specialty comparisons—A Romanian study. Acta Medica Academica, 38, 11–15. doi:10.5644/ama.v38i1.50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, D. S., Paulson, R. M., Lord, C. G., & Bond, C. F., Jr. (2005). Which behaviors do attitudes predict? Meta-analyzing the effects of social pressure and perceived difficulty. Review of General Psychology, 9, 214–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, J., Schaal, M., Sullivan, J., Bowen, M. E., Erdmann, J. B., & Hojat, M. (2009). Reliability and validity of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy in undergraduate nursing students. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 17, 73–88. doi:10.1891/1061-3749.17.1.73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, M. J., Ow, C. L., Walker, D. J., & Degenhardt, E. F. (1993). A questionnaire for patients’ evaluations of their physicians’ humanistic behaviors. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 8, 135–139.Weijters, B., Baumgartner, H., & Schillewaert N. (2013). Reversed item bias: An integrated model. Psychological Methods,18, 320-334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wen, D., Ma, X., Li, H., Liu, Z., Xian, B., & Liu, Y. (2013). Empathy in Chinese medical students: Psychometric characteristics and differences by gender and year of medical education. BMC Medical Education, 13, 130. doi:10.1186/1472-6920-13-130.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wen, D., Ma, X., Li, H., & Xian, B. (2013). Empathy in Chinese physicians: Preliminary psychometrics of the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy (JSE) [Letter to the editor]. Medical Teacher, 35, 609–610.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, B., Boyle, M., & Earl, T. (2013). Measurement of empathy levels in undergraduate parametric students. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 28, 145–149. doi:10.1017/S1049023X1300006X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, B., Brown, T., Boyle, M., & Dousek, S. (2013). Psychometric testing of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy Health Profession Students’ version with Australian paramedic students. Nursing and Health Sciences, 15, 45–50. doi:10.1111/j.1442-2018.2012.00719.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, B., Brown, T., & McKenna, L. (2013). DVD empathy simulations: An interventional study. Medical Education, 47, 1142–1143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yarnold, P. R., Bryant, F. B., Nightingale, S. D., & Martin, G. J. (1996). Assessing physician empathy using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index: A measurement model and cross-sectional analysis. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 1, 207–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yates, S. (2001). Finding your funny bone: Incorporating humour into medical practice. Australian Family Physician, 30, 22–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerman, M. (2002). Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire (ZKPQ): An alternative five-factor model. In B. DeRaad & M. Perugini (Eds.), Big five assessment (pp. 377–396). Seattle, WA: Hogrefe & Huber.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hojat, M. (2016). The Jefferson Scale of Empathy. In: Empathy in Health Professions Education and Patient Care. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-27625-0_7

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics