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Acoustic Features and Modelling

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Real-time Speech and Music Classification by Large Audio Feature Space Extraction

Part of the book series: Springer Theses ((Springer Theses))

Abstract

This chapter gives an overview of the methods for speech and music analysis implemented by the author in the openSMILE toolkit. The methods described, include all the relevant processing steps from an audio signal to a classification result. These steps include pre-processing and segmentation of the input, feature extraction (i.e., computation of acoustic Low-level Descriptors (LLDs) and summarisation of these descriptors in high level segments), and modelling (e.g., classification).

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Notes

  1. 1.

    In openSMILE the FFT with complex valued output (and also the inverse FFT) is implemented by the cTransformFFT component. Magnitude and Phase can be computed with the cFFTmagphase component.

  2. 2.

    In openSMILE windowing of audio samples (i.e., short-time analysis) can be performed with the cFramer component.

  3. 3.

    http://opensmile.audeering.com.

  4. 4.

    In openSMILE pre-emphasis can be implemented with the cPreemphasis component on a continuous signal, or with the cVectorPreemphasis component on a frame base (Hidden Markov Toolkit (Young et al. 2006) (HTK) compatible behaviour).

  5. 5.

    RMS and logarithmic energy can be computed in openSMILE with the cEnergy component.

  6. 6.

    openSMILE defines \(8.674676 \times 10^{-19}\) as a floor value for the argument of the log, for samples scaled to the range of \(-1\)–\(+1\). In case of sample value range from \(-32767\) to \(+32767\) (HTK compatible mode), the floor value for the argument of the log is 1.

  7. 7.

    The loudness approximation and the signal intensity as defined here can be extracted in openSMILE with the cIntensity component.

  8. 8.

    In openSMILE the option dBpsd must be enabled in the cFftMagphase component in order to compute logarithmic power spectral densities.

  9. 9.

    In openSMILE these spectral scale transformations and spline interpolation can be applied with the cSpecScale component.

  10. 10.

    http://www.speex.org/.

  11. 11.

    The SPEEX version of the Bark transformation is implemented in openSMILE as forward transformation only. Not all components will work, as most components require a backward scale transformation.

  12. 12.

    For an implementation, see the cMelspec component in openSMILE and scale transformation functions in the smileUtil library.

  13. 13.

    Band spectra can be computed in openSMILE with the cMelspec component, which—despite the name Melspec—can compute general band spectra for all supported frequency scales from a linear magnitude or power spectrum.

  14. 14.

    In openSMILE the cMelspec component implements these filterbanks for various frequency scales (not only Mel).

  15. 15.

    In openSMILE the FIR filterbanks with Gabor, gammatone, high- and low-pass filters can be applied with the cFirFilterbank component.

  16. 16.

    In openSMILE these spectral descriptors can be extracted with the cSpectral component.

  17. 17.

    In openSMILE, this is implemented in the cSpectral component.

  18. 18.

    This is the current default in all openSMILE feature sets up to version 2.0. An option for normalisation might appear in later versions.

  19. 19.

    In the cSpectral component.

  20. 20.

    Enabled by the option normBandEnergies of the cSpectral component of openSMILE.

  21. 21.

    ACF according to this equation is implemented in openSMILE in the cAcf component.

  22. 22.

    In openSMILE linear predictive coding is supported via the cLpc component.

  23. 23.

    As implemented in openSMILE in the cLpc component.

  24. 24.

    In openSMILE the cLsp component implements LSP computation based on code from the Speex codec library (www.speex.org).

  25. 25.

    In openSMILE formant extraction is implemented via this method in the cFormant component, which processes the AR LP coefficients from the cLpc component.

  26. 26.

    PLP via this method is implemented in openSMILE via the cPlp component.

  27. 27.

    In openSMILE this Bark scale can be selected in the cMelspec component by setting the specScale option to ‘bark_schroed’.

  28. 28.

    openSMILE allows for this flexibility because the PLP procedure builds on a chain of components: cTransformFFT, cFFTmagphase, cMelspec (for the non-linear band spectrum), and cPlp (for equal loudness and intensity power law and autoregressive modelling and cepstral coefficients).

  29. 29.

    In openSMILE it is enabled by setting htkcompatible to 1 in the cPlp component.

  30. 30.

    Configurable via the option compression in the openSMILE component cPlp.

  31. 31.

    In openSMILE MFCC are computed via cMelspec (taking FFT magnitude spectrum from cFFTmagphase as input) and cMfcc.

  32. 32.

    In openSMILE the floor value is also \(10^{-8}\) by default, and 1 when htkcompatible=1 in cMfcc.

  33. 33.

    Please note, that the DCT equation given in Young et al. (2006) and here differ because Young et al. (2006) start the summation at \(b=1\) for the first Mel-spectrum band, while here the first band is set at \(b=0\).

  34. 34.

    PLP-CC can be computed in openSMILE by creating a chain of cFFTmagphase, cMelspec, and cPlp and setting the appropriate options for cepstral coefficients in the cPlp component.

  35. 35.

    In openSMILE this behaviour is implemented in the pitch smoother components and in the cPitchACF component; the output \(F_0\) final contains \(F_0\) with values forced to 0 for unvoiced regions. See the documentation for more details.

  36. 36.

    In the cPitchACF component, which requires combined ACF and Cepstrum input from two instances of the cAcf component.

  37. 37.

    The method is implemented in openSMILE in two components: cSpecScale which performs spectral peak enhancement, smoothing, octave scale interpolation, and auditory weighting; cPitchShs which expects the spectrum produced by cSpecScale and performs the shifting, compression, and summation as well as pitch candidate estimation by peak picking.

  38. 38.

    \(\gamma \) can be changed in openSMILE via the compressionFactor option of the cPitchShs component.

  39. 39.

    The greedy peak picking algorithm behaviour is achieved in openSMILE when the greedyPeakAlgo option is set to 1. The old (non-greedy) version of the algorithm searched through the peaks from lowest to highest frequency and considered the first peak found as the first candidate. Another candidate was only added if the magnitude was higher than that of the previous first candidate. This behaviour was sub-optimal for Viterbi based smoothing, which requires multiple candidates to evaluate the best path among them.

  40. 40.

    In openSMILE this behaviour is not implemented in the cPitchShs component, but is rather implemented via the configuration, e.g., for the smileF0_base.conf and IS13_ComParE.conf configurations. Thereby, the cValbasedSelector component is used to force F0 values to 0 (indicating unvoiced parts) if the energy falls below the threshold.

  41. 41.

    Available in openSMILE via the cPitchSmoother component.

  42. 42.

    In openSMILE the Viterbi based pitch smoothing is implemented in the cPitchSmoother Viterbi component.

  43. 43.

    In openSMILE version 2.0 and above, these parameters are implemented by the cHarmonics component.

  44. 44.

    This definition of Jitter is implemented in openSMILE in the cPitchJitter component. It can be enabled via the jitterLocal option.

  45. 45.

    This definition of delta Jitter is implemented in openSMILE in the cPitchJitter component. It can be enabled via the jitterDDP option.

  46. 46.

    searchRangeRel option of the cPitchJitter component in openSMILE.

  47. 47.

    minCC option in openSMILE.

  48. 48.

    sourceQualityMean and sourceQualityRange options in cPitchJitter of openSMILE.

  49. 49.

    In openSMILE CHROMA features are supported by the cChroma component, which requires a semi-tone band spectrum as input, which can be generated by the cTonespec component (preferred) or by the (more general) cMelspec component.

  50. 50.

    In openSMILE CENS features can be computed from CHROMA (PCP) features with the cCens component.

  51. 51.

    In openSMILE the simple difference function can be applied with the cDeltaRegression component with the delta window size set to 0 (option deltaWin \(=\) 0).

  52. 52.

    In openSMILE these delta regression coefficients can be computed with the cDeltaRegression component.

  53. 53.

    Option deltaWin in openSMILE component cDeltaRegression.

  54. 54.

    In openSMILE the smoothing via a moving average window is implemented in the cContourSmoother component. Feature names often carry the suffix _sma, which stands for ‘smoothed (with) moving average (filtering)’.

  55. 55.

    In openSMILE univariate functionals are accessible via the cFunctionals component.

  56. 56.

    Implementations of mean value related functionals are contained in the cFunctionalMeans component in openSMILE, which can be activated by setting functionalsEnabled = Means in the configuration of cFunctionals.

  57. 57.

    And is the implementation used in openSMILE.

  58. 58.

    And also implemented in the cFunctionalMeans component.

  59. 59.

    In openSMILE the norm option of cFunctionalMeans can be set to segment to normalise counts and times etc. by N.

  60. 60.

    Implemented in openSMILE in the cFunctionalMoments component.

  61. 61.

    In openSMILE extreme values can be extracted with the cFunctionalExtremes component.

  62. 62.

    Percentiles are implemented in openSMILE in the cFunctionalPercentiles component.

  63. 63.

    In openSMILE the temporal centroid is implemented by the cFunctionalRegression component, as the sums are shared with the regression equations, thus computing both descriptors in the same component increases the efficiency.

  64. 64.

    In openSMILE the cFunctionalRegression component computes linear and quadratic regression coefficients.

  65. 65.

    As used in this thesis, in order to avoid a name conflict with the quadratic regression coefficients a and b and time t.

  66. 66.

    In openSMILE, the time scaling feature is enabled by the normRegCoeff option in cFunctionalRegression component. Setting it to 1 enables the relative time scale \(g=1/N\) and setting it to 2 enables the absolute time scale in seconds.

  67. 67.

    Option normInputs in openSMILE component cFunctionalRegression—also affects linear and quadratic error.

  68. 68.

    Option normInputs in the openSMILE component cFunctionalRegression—note that this option also affects the regression coefficients as it effectively normalises the input range.

  69. 69.

    In openSMILE these functionals are implemented in the component cFunctionalTimes.

  70. 70.

    Configurable with the norm option in openSMILE.

  71. 71.

    In openSMILE these functionals can be applied with the cFunctionalPeaks2 component; the cFunctionalPeaks component contains an older, obsolete peak picking algorithm.

  72. 72.

    In openSMILE in cFunctionalPeaks2 norm=second has to be set for this behaviour (default).

  73. 73.

    norm=frame in openSMILE.

  74. 74.

    norm=segment in openSMILE.

  75. 75.

    In openSMILE the norm option controls this behaviour (frames, seconds, segment—respectively).

  76. 76.

    See the absThresh and relThresh options in the openSMILE component cFunctionalPeaks2.

  77. 77.

    In openSMILE segment-based temporal functionals can be computed with the component cFunctionalSegments.

  78. 78.

    Use the ravgLng option of the cFunctionalSegments component in openSMILE.

  79. 79.

    This length can be changed via the pauseMinLng option of the cFunctionalSegments component.

  80. 80.

    Computed in openSMILE by the cFunctionalOnset component.

  81. 81.

    Provided by the cFunctionalCrossings component in openSMILE.

  82. 82.

    Sample-based functionals are provided by the cFunctionalSamples component in openSMILE.

  83. 83.

    In openSMILE the cFunctionalDCT component computes DCT coefficient functionals.

  84. 84.

    In openSMILE the cFunctionalLpc component computes LP-analysis functionals.

  85. 85.

    In openSMILE the cFunctionalModulation component computes modulation spectrum functionals.

  86. 86.

    In openSMILE, the statistics can be applied to the modulation spectrum with the cSpectral component. Also other components which expect magnitude spectra (e.g., ACF in cAcf) can read from the output of cFunctionalModulation.

  87. 87.

    These features are not part of openSMILE (yet). It is planned to include them in future releases. C code is available from the author of this thesis upon request.

  88. 88.

    E.g., as is also implemented in the CURRENNT toolkit (http://sourceforge.net/projects/currennt) and the RNNLIB (http://sourceforge.net/projects/rnnl/).

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Eyben, F. (2016). Acoustic Features and Modelling. In: Real-time Speech and Music Classification by Large Audio Feature Space Extraction. Springer Theses. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-27299-3_2

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