Abstract
Emulsions are important pharmaceutical preparations that are traditionally prepared by techniques like high-shear mixing and high-pressure homogenization. In recent years, microstructured devices have attained increasing importance with regard to emulsion preparation. In particular, the possibility of preparing emulsions with very precisely controlled particle size distribution and/or of continuous manufacturing makes such devices interesting. This chapter introduces microsystem-based techniques operating at low to moderate pressure and high-pressure-based methods. The former comprise direct microchannel and membrane emulsification as well as premix membrane emulsification. The latter particularly focuses on emulsification in a customized microchannel system but also covers aspects of conventional high-pressure emulsification devices. Apart from explaining the respective principles and devices, their use for the preparation of pharmaceutical formulations is outlined.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abrahamse A, van der Padt A, Boom R (2001) Process fundamentals of membrane emulsification: Simulation with CFD. AIChE J 47(6):1285–1291
Abrahamse A, van Lierop R, van der Sman R et al (2002) Analysis of droplet formation and interactions during cross-flow membrane emulsification. J Membr Sci 204:125–137
Baillie G, Owens M, Halbert G (2002) A synthetic low density lipoprotein particle capable of supporting U937 proliferation in vitro. J Lipid Res 43:69–73
Baker M, Naguib M (2005) Propofol: the challenges of formulation. Anesthesiology 103(4):860–876
Braginsky L, Belevitskaja M (1994) Kinetics of drops breakup in agitated vessels. In: Kulov N (ed) Liquid-liquid systems. Nova Science, Commack
Christov NC, Danov KD, Danova DK et al (2008) The drop size in membrane emulsification determined from the balance of capillary and hydrodynamic forces. Langmuir 24:1397–1410
Cook E, Lagace A (1985) Apparatus for forming emulsions. US Patent 4,533,254
Cortés-Muñoz M, Chevalier-Lucia D, Dumay E (2009) Characteristics of submicron emulsions prepared by ultra-high pressure homogenisation: effect of chilled or frozen storage. Food Hydrocoll 23:640–654
Drew JLA, Chan R, Du H et al (1990) Preparation of lipid emulsions by pressure extrusion. Biochem Int 22:983–992
Dumay E, Chevalier-Lucia D, Picart-Palmade L et al (2013) Technological aspects and potential applications of (ultra) high-pressure homogenisation. Trends Food Sci 31:13–26
Finke et al (2014) Modular overall microsystem for the integrated production and loading of solid lipid nanoparticles. In: Kwade A, Kampen I, Finke JH (eds) Concluding results of the research group mikroPART. “Microsystems for particulate life science products” for 856, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Braunschweig
Finke JH, Niemann S, Richter C et al (2014) Multiple orifices in customized microsystem high-pressure emulsification: the impact of design and counter pressure on homogenization efficiency. Chem Eng J 248:107–121
Finke JH, Richter C, Gothsch T et al (2014) Coumarin 6 as a fluorescent model drug: how to identify properties of lipid colloidal drug delivery systems via fluorescence spectroscopy? Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 116(9):1234–1246
Finke JH, Schmolke H, Klages C et al (2013) Controlling solid lipid nanoparticle adhesion by polyelectrolyte multilayer surface modifications. Int J Pharm 449(1–2):59–71
Finke J, Schur J, Richter C et al (2012) The influence of customized geometries and process parameters on nanoemulsion and solid lipid nanoparticle production in microsystems. Chem Eng J 209:126–137
Gehrmann S, Bunjes H (2016) Instrumented small scale extruder to investigate the influence of process parameters during premix membrane emulsification. Chem Eng J 284:716–723
Gehrmann S, Bunjes H (2015) Interaction of emulsifier and membrane material during the preparation of nanoemulsions by premix membrane emulsification. In: 1st European conference on pharmaceutics—drug delivery, Reims, France, 13/14 April 2015
Gijsbertsen-Abrahamse A, van der Padt A, Boom R (2004) Status of cross-flow membrane emulsification and outlook for industrial application. J Membr Sci 230(1–2):149–159
Gothsch T, Beinert S, Kampen I et al (2014) Investigation of high pressure dispersion in microsystems with experimental and numerical methods. In: Kwade A, Kampen I, Finke J (eds) Concluding results of the research group mikroPART. “Microsystems for particulate life science products” for 856, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Braunschweig 2014
Gothsch T, Finke JH, Beinert S et al (2011) Effect of microchannel geometry on high-pressure dispersion and emulsification. Chem Eng Technol 34(3):335–343
Gothsch T, Schilcher C, Richter C et al (2015) High-pressure microfluidic systems (HPMS): flow and cavitation measurements in supported silicon microsystems. Microfluid Nanofluid 18:121–130
Hao D, Gong F, Hu G et al (2008) Controlling factors on droplets uniformity in membrane emulsification: experiment and modeling analysis. Ind Eng Chem Res 47(17):6418–6425
Higashi S, Shimizu M, Nakashima T et al (1995) Arterial-injection chemotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma using monodispersed poppy-seed oil microdroplets containing fine aqueous vesicles of epirubicin: Initial medical application of a membrane-emulsification technique. Cancer 75:1245–1254
Jafari S, He Y, Bhandari B (2006) Nanoemulsion production by sonication and microfluidization—a comparison. Int J Food Prop 9:475–478
Joscelyne SM, Trägårdh G (2000) Membrane emulsification—a literature review. J Membr Sci 169:107–117
Joseph S, Bunjes H (2012) Preparation of nanoemulsions and solid lipid nanoparticles by premix membrane emulsification. J Pharm Sci 101(7):2479–2489
Joseph S, Bunjes H (2013) Influence of membrane structure on the preparation of colloidal lipid dispersions by premix membrane emulsification. Int J Pharm 446(1–2):59–62
Joseph S, Bunjes H (2014) Evaluation of Shirasu Porous Glass (SPG) membrane emulsification for the preparation of colloidal lipid drug carrier dispersions. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 87(1):178–186
Kazazi-Hyseni F, Landin M, Lathuile A et al (2014) Computer modeling assisted design of monodisperse PLGA microspheres with controlled porosity affords zero order release of an encapsulated macromolecule for 3 months. Pharm Res 31(10):2844–2856
Kobayashi I, Mukataka S, Nakajima M (2004) CFD simulation and analysis of emulsion droplet formation from straight-through microchannels. Langmuir 20(22):9868–9877
Kobayashi I, Mukataka S, Nakajima M (2004) Effect of slot aspect ratio on droplet formation from silicon straight-through microchannels. J Colloid Interface Sci 279(1):277–280
Kobayashi I, Mukataka S, Nakajima M (2005) Production of monodisperse oil-in-water emulsions using a large silicon straight-through microchannel plate. Ind Eng Chem Res 44(15):5852–5856
Kobayashi I, Uemura K, Nakajima M (2007) Formulation of monodisperse emulsions using submicron-channel arrays. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 296(1–3):285–289
Kobayashi I, Wada Y, Uemura K et al (2010) Microchannel emulsification for mass production of uniform fine droplets: integration of microchannel arrays on a chip. Microfluid Nanofluid 8(2):255–262
Kobayashi I, Yasuno M, Iwamoto S et al (2002) Microscopic observation of emulsion droplet formation from a polycarbonate membrane. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 207:185–196
Köhler K, Aguilar F, Hensel A et al (2007) Design of a microstructured system for homogenization of dairy products with high fat content. Chem Eng Technol 30:1590–1595
Kolb G, Viardot K, Wagner G et al (2001) Evaluation of a new high-pressure dispersion unit (HPN) for emulsification. Chem Eng Technol 24:293–296
Kukizaki M (2009) Preparation of solid lipid microcapsules via solid-in-oil-in-water dispersions by premix membrane emulsification. Chem Eng J 151(1–3):387–396
Kukizaki M (2009) Shirasu porous glass (SPG) membrane emulsification in the absence of shear flow at the membrane surface: Influence of surfactant type and concentration, viscosities of dispersed and continuous phases, and transmembrane pressure. J Membr Sci 327(1–2):234–243
Kukizaki M, Goto M (2007) Preparation and evaluation of uniformly sized solid lipid microcapsules using membrane emulsification. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 293(1–3):87–94
Kukizaki M, Wada T (2008) Effect of the membrane wettability on the size and size distribution of microbubbles formed from Shirasu-porous-glass (SPG) membranes. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 317(1–3):146–154
Lamprecht A, Ubrich N, Hombrero Perez N et al (1999) Biodegradable monodispersed nanoparticles prepared by pressure homogenization-emulsification. Int J Pharm 184(1):97–105
Lee L, Hancocks R, Noble I et al (2014) Production of water-in-oil nanoemulsions using high pressure homogenisation: a study on droplet break-up. J Food Eng 131:33–37
Lee L, Norton I (2013) Comparing droplet breakup for a high-pressure valve homogeniser and a Microfluidizer for the potential production of food-grade nanoemulsions. J Food Eng 114(2):158–163
Lepercq-Bost É, Giorgi M, Isambert A et al (2010) Estimating the risk of coalescence in membrane emulsification. J Membr Sci 357(1–2):36–46
Levy M, Benita S (1989) Design and characterization of a submicronized o/w emulsion of diazepam for parenteral use. Int J Pharm 54:103–112
Liu W, Yang X, Winston Ho W (2011) Preparation of uniform-sized multiple emulsions and micro/nano particulates for drug delivery by membrane emulsification. J Pharm Sci 100(1):75–93
Lobo L, Svereika A (2003) Coalescence during emulsification—2. Role of small molecule surfactants. J Colloid Interface Sci 261:498–507
Marie P, Perrier-Cornet J, Gervais P (2002) Influence of major parameters in emulsification mechanisms using a high-pressure jet. J Food Eng 53:43–51
Mehnert W, Mäder K (2012) Solid lipid nanoparticles: production, characterization and applications. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 64:83–101
Meleson K, Graves S, Mason TG (2004) Formation of concentrated nanoemulsions by extreme shear. Soft Mater 2(2–3):109–123
Muchow M, Maincent P, Müller R (2008) Lipid nanoparticles with a solid matrix (SLN, NLC, LDC) for oral drug delivery. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 34(12):1394–1405
Müller R, Mehnert W, Lucks J et al (1995) Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN)—an alternative colloidal carrier system for controlled drug delivery. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 41(1):62–69
Nakashima T, Shimizu M, Kukizaki M (1991) Membrane emulsification by microporous glass. Key Eng Mater 61–62:513–516
Nakashima T, Shimizu M, Kukizaki M (2000) Particle control of emulsion by membrane emulsification and its applications. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 45:47–56
Nazir A, Schroën K, Boom R (2010) Premix emulsification: a review. J Membr Sci 362(1–2):1–11
Olson D, White C, Richter R (2004) Effect of pressure and fat content on particle sizes in microfluidized milk. J Dairy Sci 87(10):3217–3223
Owens M, Halbert G (1995) Production and characterization of protein-free analogues of low density lipoprotein. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 41(2):120–126
Paranjpe M, Finke J, Richter C et al (2014) Physicochemical characterization of sildenafil-loaded solid lipid nanoparticle dispersions (SLN) for pulmonary application. Int J Pharm 476(1–2):41–49
Paranjpe M, Müller-Goymann C (2014) Nanoparticle-mediated pulmonary drug delivery: a review. Int J Mol Sci 15(4):5852–5873
Paranjpe M, Neuhaus V, Finke JH et al (2013) In vitro and ex vivo toxicological testing of sildenafil-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles. Inhal Toxicol 25(9):536–543
Park S, Yamaguchi T, Nakao S (2001) Transport mechanism of deformable droplets in microfiltration of emulsions. Chem Eng Sci 56:3539–3548
Perrier-Cornet J, Marie P, Gervais P (2005) Comparison of emulsification efficiency of protein-stabilized oil-in-water emulsions using jet, high pressure and colloid mill homogenization. J Food Eng 66(2):211–217
Picart L, Thiebaud M, René M et al (2006) Effects of high pressure homogenisation of raw bovine milk on alkaline phosphatase and microbial inactivation. A comparison with continuous short-time thermal treatments. J Dairy Res 73:454–463
Pinnamaneni S, Das N, Das N (2003) Comparison of oil-in-water emulsions manufactured by microfluidization and homogenization. Pharm Unserer Zeit 58(8):554–558
Pretor S, Bartels J, Lorenz T et al (2015) Cellular uptake of coumarin-6 under microfluidic conditions into HCE-T cells from nanoscale formulations. Mol Pharm 12(1):34–45
Richter C, Demming S, Lorenz T et al (2014) Design and fabrication of micro systems for particulate life science products. In: Kwade A, Kampen I, Finke J (eds) Concluding results of the research group mikroPART. “Microsystems for particulate life science products” FOR 856, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Braunschweig 2014
Richter C, Krah T, Büttgenbach S (2012) Novel 3D manufacturing method combining microelectrical discharge machining and electrochemical polishing. Microsyst Technol 18(7–8):1109–1118
Richter C, Stegemann D, Vierheller A et al (2013) Innovative process chain for the development of wear resistant 3D metal microsystems. Microelectron Eng 110:392–397
Sawalha H, Purwanti N, Rinzema A et al (2008) Polylactide microspheres prepared by premix membrane emulsification—effects of solvent removal rate. J Membr Sci 310:484–493
Schadler V, Windhab E (2006) Continuous membrane emulsification by using a membrane system with controlled pore distance. Desalination 189(1–3):130–135
Schoenitz M, Finke JH, Melzig S et al (2014) Fouling in a micro heat exchanger during continuous crystallization of solid lipid nanoparticles. Heat Transfer Eng 36(7–8):731–740
Schultz S, Wagner G, Urban K et al (2004) High-pressure homogenization as a process for emulsion formation. Chem Eng Technol 27(4):361–368
Shearer MJ (2009) Vitamin K in parenteral nutrition. Gastroenterology 137(5 Suppl):S105–S118
Siekmann B, Westesen K (1992) Nanopartikuläre Trägersysteme auf Lipidbasis zur parenteralen Applikation schwer wasserlöslicher Arzneistoffe. Pharm Unserer Zeit 21:128–129
Siekmann B, Westesen K (1992) Submicron-sized parenteral carrier systems based on solid lipids. Pharm Pharmacol Lett 1:123–126
SPG Technology Co. L (2015) Introduction of product—SPG membrane. http://www.spg-techno.co.jp/english/product/spg_membrane.shtml. Accessed 18 July 2015
Stang M, Schuchmann H, Schubert H (2001) Emulsification in high-pressure homogenizers. Eng Life Sci 1(4):151–157
Sugiura S, Nakajima M, Kumazawa N et al (2002) Characterization of spontaneous transformation-based droplet formation during microchannel emulsification. J Phys Chem B 106(36):9405–9409
Sugiura S, Nakajima M, Oda T et al (2004) Effect of interfacial tension on the dynamic behavior of droplet formation during microchannel emulsification. J Colloid Interface Sci 269(1):178–185
Sugiura S, Nakajima M, Tong J et al (2000) Preparation of monodispersed solid lipid microspheres using a microchannel emulsification technique. J Colloid Interface Sci 227(1):95–103
Surh J, Jeong YG, Vladisavljević GT (2008) On the preparation of lecithin-stabilized oil-in-water emulsions by multi-stage premix membrane emulsification. J Food Eng 89(2):164–170
Suzuki K, Fujiki I, Hagura Y (1998) Preparation of corn oil/water and water/corn oil emulsions using PTFE membranes. Food Sci Technol Int Tokyo 4(2):164–167
Suzuki K, Shuto I, Hgura Y (1996) Characteristics of the membrane emulsification method combined with preliminary emulsification for preparing corn oil-in-water emulsions. Food Sci Technol Int Tokyo 2(1):43–47
Talsma H, Ozer A, van Bloois L et al (1989) The size reduction of liposomes with a high pressure homogenizer (MicrofluidizerTM). Characterization of prepared dispersions and comparison with conventional methods. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 15(2):197–202
Tang S, Shridharan P, Sivakumar M (2013) Impact of process parameters in the generation of novel aspirin nanoemulsions—comparative studies between ultrasound cavitation and microfluidizer. Ultrason Sonochem 20:485–497
Tesch S, Freudig B, Schubert H (2003) Production of emulsions in high pressure homogenizers—Part I: Disruption and stabilization of droplets. Chem Eng Technol 26:569–573
Thiebaud M, Dumay E, Picart L et al (2003) High pressure homogenisation of raw bovine milk. Effects on fat globule size distribution and microbial inactivation. Int Dairy J 13:427–439
van der Graaf S, Schroën C, van der Sman R et al (2004) Influence of dynamic interfacial tension on droplet formation during membrane emulsification. J Colloid Interface Sci 277(2):456–463
van der Graaf S, Schroën K, Boom RM (2005) Preparation of double emulsions by membrane emulsification—a review. J Membr Sci 251(1–2):7–15
van der Zwan E, Schroën K, van Dijke K et al (2006) Visualization of droplet break-up in pre-mix membrane emulsification using microfluidic devices. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 277(1–3):223–229
Vivier A, Vuillemard J, St-Pierre S et al (1991) Large-scale blood substitute production using microfluidizer. Biomater Artif Cells Immobilization Biotechnol 19(2):499
Vladisavljević GT et al (2008) Generation of highly uniform droplets using asymmetric microchannels fabricated on a single crystal silicon plate: effect of emulsifier and oil types. Powder Technol 183:37–45
Vladisavljević GT, Khalid N, Neves MA et al (2013) Industrial lab-on-a-chip: design, applications and scale-up for drug discovery and delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 65(11–12):1626–1663
Vladisavljević GT, Kobayashi I, Nakajima M (2012) Production of uniform droplets using membrane, microchannel and microfluidic emulsification devices. Microfluid Nanofluid 13(1):151–178
Vladisavljević GT, Lambrich U, Nakajima M et al (2004) Production of O/W emulsions using SPG membranes, ceramic α-aluminium oxide membranes, microfluidizer and a silicon microchannel plate—a comparative study. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 232(2–3):199–207
Vladisavljević GT, Shimizu M, Nakashima T (2004) Preparation of monodisperse multiple emulsions at high production rates by multi-stage premix membrane emulsification. J Membr Sci 244(1–2):97–106
Vladisavljević GT, Shimizu M, Nakashima T (2005) Permeability of hydrophilic and hydrophobic Shirasu-porous-glass (SPG) membranes to pure liquids and its microstructure. J Membr Sci 250(1–2):69–77
Wagdare NA, Marcelis AT, Ho OB et al (2010) High throughput vegetable oil-in-water emulsification with a high porosity micro-engineered membrane. J Membr Sci 347(1–2):1–7
Warkiani ME, Bhagat AAS, Khoo BL et al (2013) Isoporous micro/nanoengineered membranes. ACS Nano 7(3):1882–1904
Washington C (1987) Emulsion production by microfluidizer. Lab Equip Dig 85:69–71
Washington C, Davis S (1988) The production of parenteral feeding emulsions by Microfluidizer. Int J Pharm 44(1–3):169–176
Wei Y, Wang Y, Kang A et al (2012) A novel sustained-release formulation of recombinant human growth hormone and its pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic and safety profiles. Mol Pharm 9(7):2039–2048
Wengeler R, Nirschl H (2007) Turbulent hydrodynamic stress induced dispersion and fragmentation of nanoscale agglomerates. J Colloid Interface Sci 306:262–273
Westesen K, Siekmann B, Koch M (1993) Investigations on the physical state of lipid nanoparticles by synchroton radiation X-ray diffraction. Int J Pharm 93:189–199
Wooster TJ, Golding M, Sanguansri P (2008) Impact of oil type on nanoemulsion formation and Ostwald ripening stability. Langmuir 24(22):12758–12765
Yuan Q, Williams RA (2014) Precision emulsification for droplet and capsule production. Adv Powder Technol 25(1):122–135
Zhu J, Barrow D (2005) Analysis of droplet size during crossflow membrane emulsification using stationary and vibrating micromachined silicon nitride membranes. J Membr Sci 261(1–2):136–144
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bunjes, H., Müller-Goymann, C.C. (2016). Microsystems for Emulsification. In: Dietzel, A. (eds) Microsystems for Pharmatechnology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26920-7_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26920-7_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-26918-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-26920-7
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)