Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Understanding Grit in the Context of Higher Education

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research

Part of the book series: Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research ((HATR,volume 31))

Abstract

Success in college is traditionally predicted by standardized assessments of cognitive academic ability. However, only 10 % of college students who do not finish bachelor’s degrees leave higher education prematurely due to poor academic performance. A growing body of evidence suggests that additional factors related to students meta-cognitive skills and attributes matter to college students’ likelihood of success. The author examines one meta-cognitive factor—grit—in the context of higher education. The author reviews literature related to grit and related constructs and theories, and conceptualizes the ideal type of grit to comprise three components: (a) intrinsic interest and passion, (b) preference for long-term goals, and (c) view of obstacles as manageable. Issues related to assessing grit are discussed along with interventions and contextual factors that promote or inhibit students’ development of grit. The author highlights two theoretical perspectives—human capital and critical race theory— that have largely fueled the debate about grit in education, and concludes by outlining future directions for studying grit with qualitative and mixed methods and discussing the implications of grit in higher education including university admissions, course placement, and academic advising.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adelman, C. (2006). The toolbox revisted: Paths to degree completion from high school through college. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adriaanse, M. A., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M., Hennes, E. P., De Ridder, D. T., & De Wit, J. B. (2010). When planning is not enough: Fighting unhealthy snacking habits by mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII). European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(7), 1277–1293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alan, S., Boneva, T., & Ertac, S. (2015). Ever failed, try again, succeed better: Results from a randomized educational intervention on grit. Research Gate (No. 2015–009). Retrieved from http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sule_Alan/publication/275886895_Ever_Failed_Try_Again_Succeed_Better_Results_from_a_Randomized_Educational_Intervention_on_Grit/links/55489bf30cf26a7bf4dadb86.pdf

  • Allensworth, E., & Easton, J. Q. (2005). The ontrack indicator as a predictor of high school graduation. Chicago: University of Chicago Consortium on Chicago School Research. Retrieved from http://ccsr.uchicago.edu/publications/track-indicator-predictor-high-school-graduation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, L. (2014, March 21). Grit, Galton, and eugenics [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://blogs.edweek.org/teachers/living-in-dialogue/2014/03/lauren_anderson_grit.html?intc=mcs

  • Astin, A. W. (1975). Preventing students from dropping out. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Auerbach, S. (2004). Engaging Latino parents in supporting college pathways: Lessons from a college access program. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 3, 125–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, M. J., & Dynarski, S. M. (2011). Gains and gaps: Changing inequality in US college entry and completion (No. w17633). Washington, DC: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w17633

  • Baptiste, I. (2001). Educating lone wolves: Pedagogical implications of human capital theory. Adult Education Quarterly, 51(3), 184–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baum, S., & Ma, J. (2007). Education pays: the benefits of higher education for individuals and society: 2007. New York: The College Board.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belfield, C. R., & Crosta, P. M. (2012). Predicting success in college: The importance of placement tests and high school transcripts. (CCRC Working Paper No. 42). New York: Community College Research Center, Teachers College, Columbia University. Retrieved from http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/catalog/ac:146486

  • Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Block, J. (2002). Personality as an affect-processing system: Toward an integrative theory. London: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumenfeld, P. C. (1992). Classroom learning and motivation: Clarifying and expanding goal theory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 272–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bound, J., Lovenheim, M., & Turner, S. (2009). Why have college completion rates declined? An analysis of changing student preparation and collegiate resources (No. w15566). Washington, DC: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from http://www-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.libproxy.usc.edu/pmc/articles/PMC3140225/.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu, P. (1973). Cultural reproduction and social reproduction. In R. Brown (Ed.), Knowledge, education, and cultural change: Papers in the sociology of education (pp. 71–112). London: Tavistock Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brehm, J. W., & Self, E. A. (1989). The intensity of motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 40(1), 109–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, P., Lauder, H., & Ashton, D. (2008). Education, globalisation and the future of the knowledge economy. European Educational Research Journal, 7, 131–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn (pp. 285–348) (J. D. Bransford, Ed.). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burkhart, R. A., Tholey, R. M., Guinto, D., Yeo, C. J., & Chojnacki, K. A. (2014). Grit: A marker of residents at risk for attrition? Surgery, 155(6), 1014–1022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burton, N. W., & Ramist, L. (2001). Predicting success in college: SAT studies of classes graduating since 1980. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.

    Google Scholar 

  • Busato, V. V., Prins, F. J., Elshout, J. J., & Hamaker, C. (2000). Intellectual ability, learning style, personality, achievement motivation and academic success of psychology students in higher education. Personality and Individual Differences, 29(6), 1057–1068.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campa, B. (2010). Critical resilience, schooling processes, and the academic success of Mexican Americans in a community college. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 32(3), 429–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carnevale, A. P., & Strohl, J. (2013). Separate and unequal: how higher education reinforces the intergenerational reproduction of white racial privilege. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, X., & Carroll, C. D. (2005). First-generation students in postsecondary education: A look at their college transcripts. Postsecondary Education Descriptive Analysis Report. NCES 2005–171. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov.libproxy.usc.edu/fulltext/ED485756.pdf

  • Clark, V. L. P., & Creswell, J. W. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, D., & Espinoza, A. (2008). Examining the academic success of Latino students in science technology engineering and mathematics (STEM) majors. Journal of College Student Development, 49(4), 285–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collier, P. J., & Morgan, D. L. (2008). “Is that paper really due today?”: differences in first-generation and traditional college students’ understandings of faculty expectations. Higher Education, 55(4), 425–446.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conley, D. T. (2005). College knowledge: What it really takes for students to succeed and what we can do to get them ready. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conrad, M. A. (2006). Aptitude is not enough: How personality and behavior predict academic performance. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 339–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A. (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987–2003. Review of Educational Research, 76(1), 1–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Credé, M., & Kuncel, N. R. (2008). Study habits, skills, and attitudes: The third pillar supporting collegiate academic performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(6), 425–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Creswell, J. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cross, T. M. (2014). The gritty: Grit and non-traditional doctoral student success. Journal of Educators Online, 11(3), n3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K., & Whalen, S. (1993). Talented teenagers: A longitudinal study of their development. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cullen, M. J., Sackett, P. R., & Lievens, F. (2006). Threats to the operational use of situational judgment tests in the college admission process. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 14(2), 142–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Damon, W. (2008). The path to purpose: Helping our children find their calling in life. New York: Simon and Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. (2012). The first generation student experience: Implications for campus practice, and strategies for improving persistence and success. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, LLC.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeAngelo, L., & Franke, R. (2011). Completing college: Assessing graduation rates at four-year institutions. Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, University of California Los Angeles. Retrieved from http://heri.ucla.edu/DARCU/CompletingCollege2011.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2001). Critical race theory: An introduction. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dika, S. L., & Singh, K. (2002). Applications of social capital in educational literature: A critical synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 72(1), 31–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drywater-Whitekiller, V. (2010). Cultural resilience: Voices of native American students in college retention. The Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 30(1), 19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., Grant, H., Loew, B., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2011). Self‐regulation strategies improve self‐discipline in adolescents: benefits of mental contrasting and implementation intentions. Educational Psychology, 31(1), 17–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., Kirby, T. A., Tsukayama, E., Berstein, H., & Ericsson, K. A. (2011). Deliberate practice spells success: Why grittier competitors triumph at the national spelling bee. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(2), 174–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087–1101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2009). Positive predictors of teacher effectiveness. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(6), 540–547.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. E. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychological Science, 16(12), 939–944.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., & Yeager, D. S. (2015). Measurement matters: Assessing personal qualities other than cognitive ability for educational purposes. Educational Researcher, 44(4), 237–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A., & Quinn, P. (2009). Development and validation of the short grit scale (Grit-S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(2), 166–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duggan, M. (2001). Factors influencing the first-year persistence of first generation college students. ERIC(ED459673). Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED459673

  • Dweck, C. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Random House LLC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dweck, C., Walton, G. M., Cohen, G. L., Paunesku, D., & Yeager, D. (2011). Academic tenacity: Mindset and skills that promote long-term learning. Seattle, WA: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eccles-Parsons, J., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., et al. (1983). Expectation, values, and academic. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motivation (pp. 75–146). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elder, G. H., Jr. (1999). Children of the Great Depression: Social change in life experience. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ericsson, K. A., & Smith, J. (Eds.). (1991). Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erzberger, C., & Kelle, U. (2003). Making inferences in mixed methods: The rules of integration. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research (pp. 457–490). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eskreis-Winkler, L., Shulman, E. P., Beal, S. A., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). The grit effect: predicting retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farrington, C. A., Roderick, M., Allensworth, E., Nagaoka, J., Keyes, T. S., Johnson, D. W., et al. (2013). Teaching adolescents to become learners: The role of noncognitive factors in shaping school performance—A critical literature review. Chicago: Consortium on Chicago School Research. Retrieved from http://ccsr.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/Noncognitive%20Report.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredricks, J. A., Alfeld, C., & Eccles, J. (2010). Developing and fostering passion in academic and nonacademic domains. Gifted Child Quarterly, 54(1), 18–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, R. W. (1992). Interestingness. British Journal of Psychology, 83(1), 113–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galatzer-Levy, I. R., Burton, C. L., & Bonanno, G. A. (2012). Coping flexibility, potentially traumatic life events, and resilience: A prospective study of college student adjustment. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 31(6), 542–567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galla, B. M., & Duckworth, A. L. (2015). More than resisting temptation: Beneficial habits mediate the relationship between self-control and positive life outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 508–525.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galla, B. M., Plummer, B. D., White, R. E., Meketon, D., D’Mello, S. K., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). The academic diligence task (ADT): Assessing individual differences in effort on tedious but important schoolwork. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 39(4), 314–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gauvain, M. (2005). Sociocultural contexts of learning. In A. E. Maynard & M. I. Martini (Eds.), Learning in cultural context (pp. 11–40). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Geiger, M. A., & Cooper, E. A. (1995). Predicting academic performance: The impact of expectancy and needs theory. The Journal of Experimental Education, 63(3), 251–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldrick-Rab, S., Carter, D. F., & Wagner, R. W. (2007). What higher education has to say about the transition to college. Teachers College Record, 109, 2444–2481.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54, 493–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, B., & Miller, K. (2013). Teaching self-regulation has long-term benefits. Educational Leadership, 70(8), 80–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, P., & Costello, M. (1987, October). Context as determinant of methodology in multi-client service organizations. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Evaluation Association, Boston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene, J. C., Caracelli, V. J., & Graham, W. F. (1989). Toward a conceptual framework for mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational evaluation and policy analysis, 11(3), 255–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hacker, D. J., Bol, L., Horgan, D. D., & Rakow, E. A. (2000). Test prediction and performance in a classroom context. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(1), 160–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. N. (1981). Evaluation and comparison: Social learning curriculum and instrumental enrichment. Final report. U.S. Department of Education. Nashville, TN: George Peabody College for Teachers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Tauer, J. M., & Elliot, A. J. (2002). Predicting success in college: A longitudinal study of achievement goals and ability measures as predictors of interest and performance from freshman year through graduation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(3), 562–575.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harper, S. R., & Quaye, S. J. (2009). Student engagement in higher education: Theoretical perspectives and practical approaches for diverse populations. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrell, P. E., & Forney, W. S. (2003). Ready or not, here we come: Retaining Hispanic and first-generation students in postsecondary education. Community College Journal of Research & Practice, 27, 147–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • HeavyRunner, I., & Marshall, K. (2003). Miracle survivors: promoting resilience in Indian students. Tribal College Journal, 14(4), 14–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heckman, J. J. (2000). Policies to foster human capital. Research in Economics, 54(1), 3–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Peng, K., & Greenholtz, J. (2002). What’s wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective Likert scales?: The reference-group effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 903.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, P. L., Burrow, A. L., & Bronk, K. C. (2014). Persevering with positivity and purpose: An examination of purpose commitment and positive affect as predictors of grit. Journal of Happiness Studies, 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, J. L., & Lowitzki, K. E. (2005). Predicting college success with high school grades and test scores: Limitations for minority students. The Review of Higher Education, 28(4), 455–474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hout, M. (2005). Berkeley’s comprehensive review method for making freshman admissions decisions: An assessment. Berkeley, CA: University of California. Retrieved from http://academic-senate.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/committees/aepe/hout_report_0.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howell, J. S., Kurlaender, M., & Grodsky, E. (2010). Postsecondary preparation and remediation: Examining the effect of the early assessment program at California State University. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 29(4), 726–748.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyslop, A., & Tucker, B. (2012). Ready by design: A college and career agenda for California. Washington, DC: Education Sector Reports. Retrieved from http://www.educationsector.org/publications/ready-design-college-and-career-agenda-california.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inkelas, K. K., Daver, Z. E., Vogt, K. E., & Leonard, J. B. (2007). Living-learning programs and first-generation college students’ academic and social transition to college. Research in Higher Education, 48, 403–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jehangir, R. R. (2010). Higher education and first-generation students: Cultivating community, voice, and place for the new majority. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, N. (2012). The institutional costs of student attrition. Delta Cost Project at American Institutes for Research. Retrieved from http://www.deltacostproject.org/resources/pdf/Delta-Cost-Attrition-Research-Paper.pdf

  • Johnson, H. (2009). Educating California: Choices for the future. San Francisco: Public Policy Institute of California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, D. A. (2009). The end of overeating: Taking control of the insatiable American appetite. New York: Rodale.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, Y. K. (2010). Racially different patterns of student-faculty interaction in college: A focus on levels, effects, and causal directions. Journal of the Professoriate, 3(2), 161–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, Y. K., & Sax, L. J. (2009). Student–faculty interaction in research universities: Differences by student gender, race, social class, and first-generation status. Research in Higher Education, 50, 437–459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knowledge Is Power Program (KIPP) (n. d.) Our approach. Retrieved from http://www.kipp.org/our-approach

  • Kohn, A. (2014, April 8). Ten concerns about the ‘let’s teach them grit’ fad. The Washington Post. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2014/04/08/ten-concerns-about-the-lets-teach-them-grit-fad/

  • Kohn, A. (2008). Why self-discipline is overrated: The (troubling) theory and practice of control from within. Phi Delta Kappan, 90(3), 168–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Komarraju, M., Musulkin, S., & Bhattacharya, G. (2010). Role of student–faculty interactions in developing college students’ academic self-concept, motivation, and achievement. Journal of College Student Development, 51(3), 332–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kozulin, A. (2003). Vygotsky’s educational theory in cultural context. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kyllonen, P. (2005). The case for noncognitive assessments. R & D Connections, 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kyllonen, P. C., Lipnevich, A. A., Burrus, J., & Roberts, R. D. (2008). Personality, motivation, and college readiness: A prospectus for assessment and development. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 465–491.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larson, R., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1983). The experience sampling method. In H. T. Reis (Ed.), New directions for methodology of social and behavioral sciences (Vol. 15, pp. 41–56). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Le, H., Casillas, A., Robbins, S. B., & Langley, R. (2005). Motivational and skills, social, and self-management predictors of college outcomes: Constructing the Student Readiness Inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 65(3), 482–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J. Q., McInerney, D. M., Liem, G. A. D., & Ortiga, Y. P. (2010). The relationship between future goals and achievement goal orientations: An intrinsic–extrinsic motivation perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 35, 264–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lehman, N. (1999). The big test: The secret history of the American meritocracy. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemke, J. L. (2001). Articulating communities: Sociocultural perspectives on science education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38(3), 296–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Letzring, T. D., Block, J., & Funder, D. C. (2005). Ego-control and ego-resiliency: Generalization of self-report scales based on personality descriptions from acquaintances, clinicians, and the self. Journal of Research in Personality, 39(4), 395–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood, P., & Kunda, Z. (1997). Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lohfink, M., & Paulsen, M. B. (2005). Comparing the determinants of persistence for first-generation and continuing-generation students. Journal of College Student Development, 46, 409–428.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S. (1991). Vulnerability and resilience: A study of high‐risk adolescents. Child Development, 62(3), 600–616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maddi, S. R. (2006). Hardiness: The courage to grow from stresses. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(3), 160–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maddi, S. R., Matthews, M. D., Kelly, D. R., Villarreal, B., & White, M. (2012). The role of hardiness and grit in predicting performance and retention of USMA cadets. Military Psychology, 24(1), 19–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maltby, J., Day, L., Giles, D., Gillett, R., Quick, M., Langcaster‐James, H., et al. (2008). Implicit theories of a desire for fame. British Journal of Psychology, 99(2), 279–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marburger, D. R. (2006). Does mandatory attendance improve student performance? The Journal of Economic Education, 37(2), 148–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Vallerand, R. J., Lafrenière, M. A. K., Parker, P., Morin, A. J., Carbonneau, N., et al. (2013). Passion: Does one scale fit all? Construct validity of two-factor passion scale and psychometric invariance over different activities and languages. Psychological Assessment, 25(3), 796.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, M., & Klopott, S. (2005). The link between high school reform and college access and success for low-income and minority youth. American Youth Policy Forum. Retrieved from http://p20.utsa.edu/images/uploads/Articles%202.pdf

  • Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2(04), 425–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, B. T., & Liberman, A. M. (1949). The effect of need for achievement on recognition of need-related words. Journal of Personality, 18, 236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McConnell, P. J. (2000). ERIC Review: What community colleges should do to assist first-generation students. Community College Review, 28(3), 75–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGrew, A., & Held, D. (2002). Governing globalisation: Power, authority and global governance. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McInerney, D. M., & Van Etten, S. (2001). Research on sociocultural influences on motivation and learning (Vol. 1). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKeachie, W. J., Pintrich, P. R., Lin, Y. G., & Smith, D. (1986). Teaching and learning in the college classroom: A review of the research literature. Ann Arbor, MI: National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning. The University of Michigan.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKnight, P. E., & Kashdan, T. B. (2009). Purpose in life as a system that creates and sustains health and well-being: an integrative, testable theory. Review of General Psychology, 13(3), 242–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKoon, G., & Ratcliff, R. (1992). Inference during reading. Psychological Review, 99(3), 440–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. (2001). Academic self-handicapping and achievement goals: A further examination. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26(1), 61–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. E., & Wrosch, C. (2007). You've gotta know when to fold'em: Goal disengagement and systemic inflammation in adolescence. Psychological Science, 18, 773–777.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mislevy, R. J., Almond, R. G., & Lukas, J. F. (2003). A brief introduction to evidence‐centered design. ETS Research Report Series, 2003(1), i–29. Retrieved from: https://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/RR-03-16.pdf

  • Morse, J. M. (2003). Principles of mixed methods and multimethod research design. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research (pp. 189–208). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mullainathan, S., & Shafir, E. (2013). Scarcity: Why having too little means so much. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self- efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 30–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagaoka, J., Farrington, C. A., Roderick, M., Allensworth, E., Keyes, T. S., Johnson, D. W., et al. (2013). Readiness for College: The role of noncognitive factors and context. College Readiness Indicator Systems, 45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norman, O., Ault, C. R., Bentz, B., & Meskimen, L. (2001). The black–white “achievement gap” as a perennial challenge of urban science education: A sociocultural and historical overview with implications for research and practice*. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38(10), 1101–1114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oakes, J. (2005). Keeping track (2nd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G., Mayer, D., & Thorpe, J. (2010). Self-regulation of commitment to reduce cigarette consumption: Mental contrasting of future with reality. Psychology and Health, 25(8), 961–977.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G., Pak, H. J., & Schnetter, K. (2001). Self-regulation of goal-setting: Turning free fantasies about the future into binding goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(5), 736–753.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ogunwole, S. U., Drewery, M. P., & Rios-Vargas, M. (2012, May). The population with a bachelor’s degree or higher by race and Hispanic origin: 2006–2010 (American Community Survey Brief No. 10–19). Washington, DC: The United States Census Bureau. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/acsbr10-19.pdf

  • Orfield, G., & Frankenberg, E. (2014). Increasingly segregated and unequal schools as courts reverse policy. Educational Administration Quarterly, 50(5), 718–734.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECS). (2010). Education at a glance 2010: OECD indicators. Washington, DC: OECD. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyondschool/45926093.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osgood, K. (2014, March 22). Ignoring mental health in the grit debate [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://atthechalkface.com/2014/03/22/ignoring-mental-health-in-the-grit-debate/.

  • Oswald, F. L., Schmitt, N., Kim, B. H., Ramsay, L. J., & Gillespie, M. A. (2004). Developing a biodata measure and situational judgment inventory as predictors of college student performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(2), 187–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., Terry, K., & Bybee, D. (2002). A possible selves intervention to enhance school involvement. Journal of Adolescence, 25(3), 313–326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, J. J., & Liu, A. (2014). Interest convergence or divergence?: A critical race analysis of Asian Americans, meritocracy, and critical mass in the affirmative action debate. The Journal of Higher Education, 85(1), 36–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (2005). How college affects students: A third decade of research (Vol. 2). Indianapolis, IN: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paunesku, D., Walton, G. M., Romero, C., Smith, E. N., Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2015). Mind-set interventions are a scalable treatment for academic underachievement. Psychological Science, 1, 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, D. (2015). Putting measurement first: Understanding ‘grit’ in educational policy and practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 49(4), 571–589.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C., & Barrett, L. C. (1987). Explanatory style and academic performance among university freshman. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(3), 603–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (1984). Causal explanations as a risk factor for depression: Theory and evidence. Psychological Review, 91(3), 347–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J., & Haas. (2003). The process of coping among ethnic minority first-generation college freshmen: A narrative approach. The Journal of Social Psychology, 143, 707–726.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pizzolato, J. E. (2006). Achieving college student possible selves: Navigating the space between commitment and achievement of long-term identity goals. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12(1), 57–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plant, E. A., Ericsson, K. A., Hill, L., & Asberg, K. (2005). Why study time does not predict grade point average across college students: Implications of deliberate practice for academic performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30(1), 96–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pokay, P., & Blumenfeld, P. C. (1990). Predicting achievement early and late in the semester: The role of motivation and use of learning strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 41–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ravitch, D. (2014, March 22). Lauren Anderson: Why the focus on “grit”? [Web log post] Retrieved from http://dianeravitch.net/2014/03/22/lauren-anderson-why-the-focus-on grit/

  • Razzouk, R. (2011). Using evidence-centered design for developing valid assessments of 21st century skills. Bellevue, WA: Edvation.com.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reed, J., Pritschet, B. L., & Cutton, D. M. (2013). Grit, conscientiousness, and the transtheoretical model of change for exercise behavior. Journal of Health Psychology, 18(5), 612–619.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, M. J., & Moore, J. L. (2008). College readiness and academic preparation for postsecondary education oral histories of first-generation urban college students. Urban Education, 43(2), 240–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rendon, L. I. (1994). Validating culturally diverse students: Toward a new model of learning and student development. Innovative Higher Education, 19(1), 33–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robertson-Kraft, C., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). True grit: Trait-level perseverance and passion for long-term goals predicts effectiveness and retention among novice teachers. Teachers College Record, 116(3).

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, D. A., Burns, C. F., & Gaw, K. F. (1996). Orientation programs: A foundation for student learning and success. New Directions for Student Services, 1996(75), 55–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roderick, M., Nagaoka, J., & Coca, V. (2009). College readiness for all: The challenge for urban high schools. The Future of Children, 19(1), 185–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rojas, J. P., Usher, E. L., & Toland, M. D. (2012). Creativity and grit as predictors of mathematics achievement in early adolescence. Race/Ethnicity, 8(05), 02.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rose, M. A. (2009). Why school?: Reclaiming education for all of us. New York: The New Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, J. E., & Becker, K. I. (2011). The early college challenge: Navigating disadvantaged students’ transition to college. American Educator, 35(3), 14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rossman, G. B., & Wilson, B. L. (1985). Numbers and words combining quantitative and qualitative methods in a single large-scale evaluation study. Evaluation review, 9(5), 627–643.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rumberger, R. W. (2011). Dropping out. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (2006). Implications of resilience concepts for scientific understanding. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094(1), 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, W. (1976). Blaming the victim. New York: Random House LLC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryans, D. G. (1939). The measurement of persistence: An historical review. Psychological Bulletin, 36, 715–739.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sadovnik, A. R. (2001). Theories in the sociology of education. In J. H. Ballantine & J. Z. Spade (Eds.), Schools and society: A sociological approach to education (pp. 15–34). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, N. (2012). Development of rationale and measures of noncognitive college student potential. Educational Psychologist, 47(1), 18–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, M. (2010). Finishing the first lap: The cost of first-year student attrition in America’s four-year colleges and universities. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research. Retrieved from http://www.air.org/files/AIR_Schneider_Finishing_the_First_Lap_Oct10.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, M., & Yin, L. (2011). The high cost of low graduation rates: How much does dropping out of college really cost? Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research. Retrieved from: http://www.air.org/resource/high-cost-low-graduation-rates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, T. W. (1971). Investment in human capital: The role of education and research. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott-Clayton, J. E. (2012). Do high-stakes placement exams predict college success?(CCRC Working Paper No. 41). New York: Community College Research Center, Teachers College, Columbia University. Retrieved from http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/catalog/ac:146482

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (1990). Learned optimism. New York: A.A. Knopf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shechtman, N., DeBarger, A., Dornsife, C., Rosier, S., Yarnall, L., & U.S. Department of Education, Office of Technology. (2013). Promoting grit, tenacity, and perseverance: Critical factors for success in the 21st century. Washington, DC: SRI International Center for Technology in Learning

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheeran, P., Webb, T. L., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2005). The interplay between goal intentions and implementation intentions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(1), 87–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shute, V. J., & Ventura, M. (2013). Measuring and supporting learning in games: Stealth assessment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sickles, A. R. (2004). First generation students Categories: Student populations. NACADA clearinghouse academic advising resource. Retrieved from http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/Clearinghouse/View-Articles/First-generation-students.aspx

  • Silvia, P. J., Eddington, K. M., Beaty, R. E., Nusbaum, E. C., & Kwapil, T. R. (2013). Gritty people try harder: Grit and effort-related cardiac autonomic activity during an active coping challenge. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 88(2), 200–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Socol, I. (2014, January 23). “Grit” part 2 – Is “slack” what kids need? [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://speedchange.blogspot.com/2014/01/grit-part-2-is-slack-what-kids-need.html

  • Solorzano, D. (1997). Images and words that wound: Critical race theory, racial stereotyping, and teacher education. Teacher Education Quarterly, 24, 5–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solorzano, D., Ceja, M., & Yosso, T. (2000). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate: The experiences of African American college students. Journal of Negro Education, 69, 60–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanton-Salazar, R. D. (2011). A social capital framework for the study of institutional agents and their role in the empowerment of low-status students and youth. Youth & Society, 43(3), 1066–1109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613–629.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stemler, S. E. (2012). What should university admissions tests predict? Educational Psychologist, 47(1), 5–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sternberg, R. J., Bonney, C. R., Gabora, L., & Merrifield, M. (2012). WICS: A model for college and university admissions. Educational Psychologist, 47(1), 30–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoeber, J., Childs, J. H., Hayward, J. A., & Feast, A. R. (2011). Passion and motivation for studying: predicting academic engagement and burnout in university students. Educational Psychology, 31(4), 513–528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, D. (2002). Policy paradox: The art of political decision making (Rev. Ed.).New York: W.W. Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strage, A. A. (1999). Social and academic integration and college success: Similarities and differences as a function of ethnicity and family educational background. College Student Journal, 33(2), 198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strayhorn, T. L. (2006). Factors influencing the academic achievement of first-generation college students. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 43, 1278–1307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strayhorn, T. L. (2013). What role does grit play in the academic success of black male collegians at predominantly white institutions? Journal of African American Studies, 18, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, J. R., & Guerra, N. S. (2007). A closer look at college students: Self-efficacy and goal orientation. Journal of Advanced Academics, 18(3), 454–476.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (1998). Mixed methodology: Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches (Vol. 46). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thayer, P. B., & Educational Resources Information Center (U.S.). (2000). Retention of students from first generation and low income backgrounds. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Educational Resources Information Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, P. (2013, November 10). The poverty trap: Slack, not grit, creates achievement [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://radicalscholarship.wordpress.com/2013/11/10/the-poverty-trap-slack-not-grit-creates-achievment/

  • Thomas, L. L., Kuncel, N. R., & Credé, M. (2007). Noncognitive variables in college admissions: The case of the Non-Cognitive Questionnaire. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 67(4), 635–657.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tierney, W. G., & Garcia, L. D. (2010). Remediation in higher education: The role of information. American Behavioral Scientist, 55(2), 102–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tierney, W. G. & Almeida, D. J. (2015). Academic responsibility: Toward a cultural politics of integrity. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 1-12. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2015.1104855

  • Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tinto, V. (2012). Completing college: Rethinking institutional action. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tough, P. (2012). How children succeed: grit curiosity, and the hidden power of character. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyack, D. B. (1976). Ways of seeing: An essay on the history of compulsory schooling. Harvard Educational Review, 46(3), 355–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Education. (2011a). Percentage of first-year undergraduate students who took remedial education courses, by selected characteristics: 2003–04 and 2007–08 [Table 243]. Washington, DC: U.S. National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d11/tables/dt11_243.asp.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Education. (2011b). Percentage of degree-granting institutions offering remedial services, by control and level of institution: 1989–90 through 2010–11 [Table 344]. Washington, DC: U.S. National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d11/tables/dt11_344.asp.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Education. (2014). Institutional retention and graduation rates for undergraduate students. (NCES 2014–083). The Condition of Education 2014. Washington DC: U.S. National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cva.asp

  • Vallerand, R. J. (2012). The role of passion in sustainable psychological well-being. Psychology of Well-Being, 2(1), 1–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J., Blanchard, C., Mageau, G. A., Koestner, R., Ratelle, C., Léonard, M., et al. (2003). Les passions de l’ame: on obsessive and harmonious passion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(4), 756.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J., Paquet, Y., Philippe, F. L., & Charest, J. (2010). On the role of passion for work in burnout: A process model. Journal of Personality, 78(1), 289–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Varney, J. (2007). Intrusive advising. Academic Advising Today, 30(3), 11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Venezia, A., & Jaeger, L. (2013). Transitions from high school to college. The Future of Children, 23(1), 117–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. London: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walters, D. (2004). The relationship between postsecondary education and skill: Comparing credentialism with human capital theory. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 34(2), 97–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2011). A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students. Science, 331(6023), 1447–1451.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, C. D. C., & Castaneda-Sound, C. (2008). The role of generational status, self-esteem, academic self-efficacy, and perceived social support in college students’ psychological well-being. Journal of College Counseling, 11, 101–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J. (1997). Fostering educational resilience in inner-city schools. Publication Series No. 4. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, L., Siegel, M. J., & Davenport, Z. (2012). First-generation college students: Understanding and improving the experience from recruitment to commencement. San Francisco: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. C. (1991). Dissolving the sameness/difference debate: A post-modern path beyond essentialism in feminist and critical race theory. Duke Law Journal, 1991, 296–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, T. D., & Linville, P. W. (1985). Improving the performance of college freshmen with attributional techniques. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(1), 287–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winne, P. H. (1996). A metacognitive view of individual differences in self-regulated learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 8(4), 327–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolters, C. A., & Hussain, M. (2014). Investigating grit and its relations with college students’ self-regulated learning and academic achievement. Metacognition and Learning, 6, 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeager, D. S., Henderson, M. D., Paunesku, D., Walton, G. M., D’Mello, S., Spitzer, B. J., et al. (2014). Boring but important: A self-transcendent purpose for learning fosters academic self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(4), 559–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yeager, D. S., Paunesku, D., Walton, G. M., & Dweck, C. S. (2013, May). How can we instill productive mindsets at scale? A review of the evidence and an initial R&D agenda. In White paper prepared for the White House meeting on “Excellence in education: The importance of academic mindsets,”. Available at http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/HomePage/Group/YeagerLAB/ADRG/PdfsnnnnYeageretalR&Dagenda-6-10-13.pdf

  • Yosso, T. J., Smith, W. A., Ceja, M., & Solorzano, D. G. (2009). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate for Latina/o undergraduates. Harvard Educational Review, 79(4), 659–691.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J., Bandura, A., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Self-motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29(3), 663–676.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J., & Pons, M. M. (1986). Development of a structured interview for assessing student use of self-regulated learning strategies. American Educational Research Journal, 23(4), 614–628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zinth, J. D. (2012). Defining college readiness: Where are we now, and where do we need to be? The progress of education reform. Education Commission of the States, 13(2). Retrieved from http://www.ecs.org/clearinghouse/01/01/22/10122.pdf

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Pullias Center for Higher Education, University of Southern California, Waite Phillips Hall, Room 701, 3470 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, 90089, CA, USA

    Daniel J. Almeida

Authors
  1. Daniel J. Almeida
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Daniel J. Almeida .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. College of Education, The University of Iowa, IOWA CITY, Iowa, USA

    Michael B. Paulsen

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Almeida, D.J. (2016). Understanding Grit in the Context of Higher Education. In: Paulsen, M. (eds) Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research. Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research, vol 31. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26829-3_11

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26829-3_11

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-26828-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-26829-3

  • eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation