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Health Effects and Control of Toxic Lead in the Environment

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Natural Resources and Control Processes

Part of the book series: Handbook of Environmental Engineering ((HEE,volume 17))

Abstract

Lead is a heavy metal that occurs naturally in the Earth’s crust. Lead does not break down in the environment; if left undisturbed, lead is virtually immobile. However, once mined and transformed into man-made products dispersed throughout the environment, lead becomes highly toxic to humans. Lead is ubiquitous in older American homes in house paint and is common in certain industrial workplaces, due to its widespread use over the course of the past century.

The health effects of lead poisoning can be quite serious, and there are numerous regulations regarding its use. The Consumer Product Safety Commission bans the use of lead-based paint in residences. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration sets limits on permissible exposure to lead in the workplace. However, because lead-based paint inhibits the rusting and corrosion of iron and steel, lead continues to be used on bridges, railways, ships, lighthouses, and other steel structures. This is the case even though substitute lead-free coatings are available.

Lead is most commonly absorbed into the body by inhalation, in the form of lead-contaminated dust or mist, often generated from old lead-based paint that has begun to chip. A significant portion of inhaled or ingested lead is absorbed into the bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, lead circulates through the body and is stored in various organs and body tissues. As exposure continues, the amount stored will increase and accumulate in the body, where it can slowly cause irreversible damage, first to individual cells, then to organs and whole body systems.

Lead is toxic to both male and female reproductive systems. Lead can lead to miscarriage and stillbirth in women exposed to lead. Children born to parents who were exposed to excess lead levels are more likely to have birth defects, mental retardation, or behavioral disorders and are more likely to die during the first year of childhood. Lead is much more harmful to children than adults because it can affect children’s brains and nervous systems, which are still developing. Children are more vulnerable to permanent damage; for example, learning disabilities, behavioral abnormalities, attention deficit problems, and insomnia.

Children are also at higher risk because they are more likely to unknowingly inhale or ingest lead. Exposure to lead in house dust tends to be highest for young children, due to their frequent and extensive contact with floors, carpets, window areas, and other surfaces where dust gathers, as well as their frequent hand-to-mouth activity. It is common for young children to put everything, including hands, pacifiers, toys, and other small objects, into their mouths.

Workers involved in iron work, demolition work, painting, lead-based paint abatement, plumbing, heating and air conditioning, and carpentry are also potentially at risk for high lead exposure.

There have been significant efforts over the past few decades to reduce lead exposure in the USA, but lead poisoning is still an important public health issue. To address potential lead poisoning, a risk evaluation of a building or home will determine the risk and extent of the lead hazard present. Once a lead risk is confirmed, the building should undergo abatement, the process of eliminating or mitigating the lead hazard. There are several approaches to abatement that can be taken.

This chapter will discuss the health effects of lead on children, women, workers, and their protection. It will then detail the types of abatement and how they can be implemented. The risk evaluation and the US federal and New York State rules and regulations on lead will also be discussed.

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Abbreviations

ABLES:

New Jersey Adult Blood Lead Epidemiology and Surveillance System

ACCLPP:

Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention

ACGIH:

American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists

ASTM:

American Society for Testing and Materials

ATSDR:

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

BLL:

Blood lead level

CDCP:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CPSC:

Consumer Product Safety Commission

FDA:

Food and Drug Administration

HEPA:

High-efficiency particulate air

HUD:

US Department of Housing and Urban Development

LBP:

Lead-based paint

MCLG:

Maximum contaminant level goal

MSDS:

Material safety data sheet

NAAQS:

National Ambient Air Quality Standard

NHANES:

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

NIOSH:

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

NLLAP:

National Lead Laboratory Accreditation Program

NTP:

National Toxicology Program

NYCRR:

New York Codes, Rules, and Regulations

NYS:

New York State

NYSDOH:

New York State Department of Health

OSHA:

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

PEL:

Permissible exposure limit

PPE:

Personal protection equipment

PPM:

Parts per million

REL:

Recommended exposure limit

TLV:

Threshold limit value

TSCA:

Toxic Substances Control Act

TWA:

Time-weighted average

US EPA:

US Environmental Protection Agency

μg/dL:

Microgram per deciliter

μg/g:

Microgram per gram

μg/L:

Microgram per liter

μg/m3 :

Microgram per cubic meter

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Wenko Systems Analysis, 2141 Eye Street, NW, Suite 801, Washington, DC, 20037, USA

    Nancy Loh

  2. Wenko Systems Analysis, 230 Beverly Road, Pittsburgh, PA, 15216, USA

    Hsue-Peng Loh

  3. Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Newtonville, NY, 12128-0405, USA

    Lawrence K. Wang & Mu-Hao Sung Wang

  4. Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA

    Lawrence K. Wang & Mu-Hao Sung Wang

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  1. Nancy Loh
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  2. Hsue-Peng Loh
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  3. Lawrence K. Wang
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  4. Mu-Hao Sung Wang
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Correspondence to Nancy Loh .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Newtonville, New York, USA

    Lawrence K. Wang

  2. Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Newtonville, New York, USA

    Mu-Hao Sung Wang

  3. Cleveland State University , Cleveland, Ohio, USA

    Yung-Tse Hung

  4. Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Pasadena, California, USA

    Nazih K. Shammas

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Loh, N., Loh, HP., Wang, L.K., Wang, MH.S. (2016). Health Effects and Control of Toxic Lead in the Environment. In: Wang, L., Wang, MH., Hung, YT., Shammas, N. (eds) Natural Resources and Control Processes. Handbook of Environmental Engineering, vol 17. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26800-2_5

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