Abstract
Plants are endowed with innate immune system with ability to confer resistance against wide-range of oomycete, fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens. This basal resistance is not expressed in healthy unstressed plants. The pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)/microbe associated molecular patterns (MAMPs)/microbe-derived elicitors switch on various signaling systems activating the basal resistance. They can induce resistance against a wide range of biotrophic, hemibiotrophic, and necrotrophic pathogens. Thus engineering of PAMPs/MAMPs/elicitors may offer new opportunities for generating broad-spectrum disease resistance in various crops. Genetic engineering using genes encoding PAMPs may be highly effective in controlling diseases. Alternatively, formulations of the PAMPs can be developed and used as plant defense activators to manage wide-spectrum of diseases. The time of induction, intensity of induction, and duration of induction of the defense signals may vary depending on PAMPs. Amount of PAMP available in the plant-pathogen interaction site may determine the intensity of induced gene expression. Each PAMP may regulate distinctly different signaling pathway(s). Sometimes different PAMPs may induce the same signaling system, but the intensity of the defense signaling gene expression may differ. The same PAMP may behave differently in different plant system. A single PAMP may not be able to activate all the defense signaling-related genes and several PAMPs may be required to activate the complex signaling systems. PAMPs may act synergistically or antagonistically in inducing defense signaling. Some PAMPs have additive effect, while others show antagonistic effect between them. Selection of suitable PAMPs to manage different pathogens in different host plants is important in exploiting the PAMPs for disease management. Several commercial formulations of PAMPs/MAMPs/elicitors have been developed in different countries and widely used as foliar spray. The PAMP harpin formulation induces both local and systemic resistance in foliage and also induces resistance in fruits. Several factors such as environment, genotype, and crop nutrition determine the efficacy of harpin in controlling diseases under field conditions. The time of application is very critical in enhancing the efficacy of harpin in controlling diseases. Harpin should be applied before the pathogen invasion. The concentration of the harpin applied also determines the efficacy of the treatment in controlling diseases. Foliar application of harpin not only reduces disease incidence but also acts as a growth promoter. Bioengineering the genes encoding proteinaceous PAMPs such as harpins, elicitins, and flagellins has been found to be effective tool to manage crop diseases. Levels of the PAMP harpin gene expression may vary among different transgenic plant lines. The transgenic plants which show high level of expression of harpin gene expression show very high level of resistance, while the transgenic plants which show low level of expression of the harpin gene show very low level of resistance against pathogens, suggesting that the transgenic lines should be carefully selected to generate highly useful disease-resistant cultivars. Proper selection of promoters for developing transgenic disease-resistant plants using PAMP genes is necessary. Expression of harpin genes can be enhanced resulting in higher accumulation of harpin by properly selecting the promoter for gene transcription. A promoter of the rice phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) gene was used to regulate the expression of cryptogein (crypt) gene in tobacco. The PAL promoter had a low level of constitutive expression and was strongly induced by pathogen infection. The transgenic tobacco plants expressing cryptogein with the inducible PAL promoter showed significantly enhanced resistance against various pathogens, suggesting that low-level constitutive expression of elicitin gene may have potential use in generating broad-spectrum disease-resistant plants. The constitutive expression of elicitin gene in transgenic plants will be ideal to induce resistance against wide-range of pathogens. Continuous recognition of the elicitin signal has been shown to be a prerequisite for prolonged activation of signaling events in tobacco cells. However, elicitin is known to induce cell necrosis and hence constitutive overexpression of the gene may affect the agronomic characters of the transgenic plants. To reduce the phytotoxicity of the elicitin, transgenic plants harboring a pathogen-inducible promoter were developed to express the elicitin at low level. The gene encoding the proteinaceous elicitor FsphDNase shows DNase activity, which can cause damage of DNA within nuclei of plant cells. Constitutive activation of FsphDNase within the plant cell may be destructive. However, use of pathogen-inducible promoters overcomes the adverse effect and the transgenic tobacco plants expressing the elicitor gene showed no detectable morphological differences from the wild-type plants. These transgenic plants also showed enhanced resistance against fungal, bacterial, and oomycete pathogens. Selection of suitable pathogen-inducible promoter for expressing the elicitor gene appears to be a perquisite for developing disease-resistant plants without any reduction in yield potential. Collectively these studies suggest that the PAMPs have high potential to engineer and manipulate defense signaling systems to intervene in pathogensesis of a wide-range of pathogens. Transgenic plants are often considered as poor yielder with adverse agronomic characters. The major drawback in developing transgenic plants for management of crop diseases is in their adverse effect on crop growth and yield potential. However, the transgenic plants expressing harpin gene did not affect crop growth and yield characters. Technologies have also been developed to reduce the adverse effect of some PAMPs on plant growth characters by using pathogen-inducible promoters instead of using constitutively expressing promoters.
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Vidhyasekaran, P. (2016). Switching on Plant Immune Signaling Systems Using Microbe-Associated Molecular Patterns. In: Switching on Plant Innate Immunity Signaling Systems. Signaling and Communication in Plants. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26118-8_3
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