Skip to main content

Young Children’s Experiences and Learning in Intractable Conflicts

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover A Social Psychology Perspective on The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict

Part of the book series: Peace Psychology Book Series ((PPBS))

  • 1069 Accesses

Abstract

Children, as other members of societies involved in intractable conflicts, are continuously exposed to the powerful effects of these conflicts, because the chronic threat of violence dominates their lives. From a very early age, they are aware of the conflictual environment, absorbing information, forming concepts, categories, impressions, understandings, and preferences regarding the conflict and the rival. The present chapter discusses the personal experiences of young children in the context of an intractable conflict and the ways in which they learn about the conflict. In addition, it presents the content that young children acquire regarding the conflict in general and particularly pre-school children, focusing on the Israeli-Jewish case. The chapter concludes by arguing that these early conflict-related experiences and learning contribute to the continuation and preservation of conflicts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Societal beliefs are defined as cognitions shared by society members that address themes and issues with which society members are particularly occupied and which contribute to their sense of uniqueness (Bar-Tal, 2000; see also Oren, Chap. 8; Shaked, Chap. 9).

  2. 2.

    A term used in the Book of Isaiah (Isaiah 42:6).

  3. 3.

    A phrase from the Passover Haggadah (text used on Passover).

  4. 4.

    Haman is the Persian antagonist in the story of Purim.

References

  • Abdolrazeq, Y. (2002). The Jew’s [sic] stereotype in the eyes of Palestinians: The stereotype of Jews in Israel by Palestinians of five age groups in three different environments. Unpublished master’s thesis, Tel Aviv University (in Hebrew).

    Google Scholar 

  • Abu Hein, F., Qouta, S., Thabet, A., & El Sarraj, E. (1993). Trauma and mental health of children in Gaza. British Medical Journal, 306, 1130–1131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Eissa, Y. A. (1995). The impact of the Gulf armed conflict on the health and behaviour of Kuwaiti children. Social Science & Medicine, 7, 1033–1037.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arviv-Abromovich, R. (2010). Societal beliefs about the Israeli-Arab Palestinian conflict transmitted in national ceremonies – 1948-2006. PhD dissertation, Tel Aviv University (in Hebrew).

    Google Scholar 

  • Augoustinos, M., & Rosewarne, D. L. (2001). Stereotype knowledge and prejudice in children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 19, 143–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barrett, M. (2007). Children’s knowledge, beliefs and feelings about nations and national groups. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Tal, D. (1996). Development of social categories and stereotypes in early childhood: The case of “The Arab” concept formation, stereotype and attitudes by Jewish children in Israel. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20, 341–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Tal, D. (2000). Shared beliefs in a society: Social psychological analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Tal, D. (2007). Sociopsychological foundations of intractable conflicts. American Behavioral Scientist, 50, 1430–1453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Tal, D. (2013). Intractable conflicts: Socio-psychological foundations and dynamics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Tal, D., Abutbul-Selinger, G., & Raviv, A. (2014). The culture of conflict and its routinisation. In P. Nesbitt-Larking, C. Kinnvall, T. Capelos, & H. Dekker (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of global political psychology (pp. 369–387). London: Palgrave.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Tal, D., & Halperin, E. (2011). Sociopsychological barriers to conflict resolution. In D. Bar-Tal (Ed.), Intergroup conflicts and their resolution: Social psychological perspective (pp. 217–240). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Tal, D., & Ozer, I. (2009). How ethos of conflict is transmitted during Holocaust Day, Memorial Day, and Independence Day by teachers of kindergartens in mix city? Unpublished manuscript (in Hebrew).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Tal, D., Spivak, K., & Castel-Bazelet, I. (2003). Collective memory of children in kindergarten (age 5-6) as a function of religiosity. Unpublished manuscript (in Hebrew).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Tal, D., & Teichman, Y. (2005). Stereotypes and prejudice in conflict: Representations of Arabs in Israeli Jewish society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Barzilay, S. (2012). Ethos of conflict as perceived by Israeli Jewish elementary school children. Unpublished master’s thesis, Tel Aviv University (in Hebrew).

    Google Scholar 

  • Basu, B., & Dutta, N. (2010). Psychological changes of children surviving terrorist shock in Indian Kashmir. Journal of Child Neurology, 25, 1331–1334.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Becirevic, M., Roberts, R., & Baker, T. (2009). Children’s understanding of the war in Iraq: Views from Britain and Bosnia. International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, 14, 17–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ben Shabat, C. (2010). Collective memory and ethos of conflict acquisition during childhood: Comparing children attending state-secular and state-religious schools in Israel. Unpublished master’s thesis, Tel Aviv University (in Hebrew).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Amos, A., & Bet-El, I. (2005). Commemoration and national identity: Memorial ceremonies in Israeli schools. In A. Levy & A. Weingrod (Eds.), Homelands and diasporas: Holy lands and other places (pp. 169–199). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Betancourt, T. S., Brennan, R. T., Rubin-Smith, J., Fitzmaurice, G. M., & Gilman, S. E. (2010). Sierra Leone’s former child soldiers: A longitudinal study of risk, protective factors and mental health. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 606–615.

    Google Scholar 

  • Betancourt, T. S., McBain, R., Newnham, E. A., & Brennan, R. T. (2013). Trajectories of internalizing problems in war-affected Sierra Leonean youth: Examining conflict and postconflict factors. Child Development, 84, 455–470.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blankemeyer, M., Walker, K., & Svitak, E. (2009). The 2003 war in Iraq: An ecological analysis of American and Northern Irish children’s perceptions. Childhood, 16, 229–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burton, J. W. (Ed.). (1990). Conflict: Human needs theory. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cairns, E. (1996). Children and political violence. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, C., & Rice, C. (1997). Acquisition and manifestation of prejudice in children. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 25, 185–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A. A., & Adoni, H. (1980). Children’s fear responses to real-life violence on television: The case of the 1973 Middle East War. Communications, 6, 81–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, P., Smith, A., & Kelly, B. (2002). Too young to notice? The cultural and political awareness of 3-6 year olds in Northern Ireland. Belfast: Northern Ireland Community Relations Council.

    Google Scholar 

  • Covell, K. (1999). Cultural socialization and conceptions of war and peace: A cross-national comparison. In A. Raviv, L. Oppenheimer, & D. Bar-Tal (Eds.), How children understand war and peace: A call for international peace education (pp. 111–126). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E. M., Goeke-Morey, C. M., Merrilees, C. E., Taylor, L. K., & Shirlow, P. (2014). A social-ecological, process-oriented perspective on political violence and child development. Child Development Perspective, 8, 82–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Jong, J. (Ed.). (2002). Trauma, war, and violence: Public mental health in socio-cultural context. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derluyn, I., Broekaert, E., Schuyten, G., & De Temmerman, E. (2004). Post-traumatic stress in former Ugandan child soldiers. The Lancet, 363, 861–863.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Devine-Wright, P. (2003). A theoretical overview of memory and conflict. In E. Cairns & M. D. Roe (Eds.), The role of memory in ethnic conflict (pp. 9–33). Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Beach, K. R. (2001). Implicit and explicit attitudes: Examination of the relationship between measures of intergroup bias. In R. Brown & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Intergroup processes (pp. 175–197). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubow, E. F., Boxer, P., Huesmann, L. R., Shikaki, K., Landau, S., Dvir Gvirsman, S., et al. (2010). Exposure to conflict and violence across contexts: Relations to adjustment among Palestinian children. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 39, 103–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elbert, T., Schauer, M., Shauer, E., Huschka, B., Hirth, M., & Neuner, F. (2009). Trauma-related impairment in children—A survey in Sri Lankan provinces affected by armed conflict. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 238–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eldan, M. (2006). Imparting collective memory by secular and religious kindergarten teachers. Unpublished master’s thesis, Tel Aviv University (in Hebrew).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fay, M. T., Morrissey, M., & Smyth, M. (1999). Northern Ireland’s troubles: The human costs. London: Pluto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, R., & Vengrober, A. (2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder in infants and young children exposed to war-related trauma. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 645–658.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furman, M. (1999). Army and war: Collective narratives of early childhood in contemporary Israel. In E. Lomsky-Feder & E. Ben-Ari (Eds.), The military and militarism in Israeli society (pp. 141–168). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuxman, S. (2012). Learning the past, understanding the present, shaping the future: Israeli adolescents’ narratives of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halbwachs, M. (1992). On collective memory. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Handelman, D., & Katz, E. (1990). State ceremonies of Israel: Remembrance Day and Independence Day. In D. Handelman (Ed.), Models and mirrors: Towards an anthropology of public events (pp. 191–233). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Husain, A. S., Nair, J., Holcomb, W., Reid, J. C., Vargas, V., & Nair, S. S. (1998). Stress reactions of children and adolescents in war and siege conditions. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1718–1719.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Israeli-Diner, G. (1993). Stereotypes of Arabs among nursery-school children. Unpublished master’s thesis, Tel Aviv University (in Hebrew).

    Google Scholar 

  • Landau, S. F., Dvir Gvirsman, S., Huesmann, L. R., Dubow, E. F., Boxer, P., Ginges, J., et al. (2010). The effects of exposure to violence on aggressive behavior: The case of Arab and Jewish children in Israel. In K. Österman (Ed.), Indirect and direct aggression (pp. 321–343). Frankfurt, Germany: Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landers, C. (1998). Listen to me: Protecting the development of young children in armed conflict. New York, NY: Office of Emergency Programs, UNICEF.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lange, M. (2012). Educations in ethnic violence: Identity, educational bubbles, and resource mobilization. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemish, D., & Götz, M. (Eds.). (2007). Children and media in times of conflict and war. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lomsky-Feder, E. (2003). From agent of national memory to local mnemonic community: The school memorial ceremony for fallen soldiers in Israel. Megamot, 42, 353–387 (in Hebrew).

    Google Scholar 

  • Macksoud, M. S., & Aber, J. L. (1996). The war experiences and psychosocial development of children in Lebanon. Child Development, 67, 70–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mcintyre, A., & Thusi, T. (2003). Children and youth in Sierra Leone’s peace-building process. African Security Review, 12, 73–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meijer, A. (1985). Child psychiatric sequelae of maternal war stress. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 72, 505–511.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miljević-Ridjički, R., & Lugomer-Armano, G. (1994). Children’s comprehension of war. Child Abuse Review, 3, 134–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moyer-Gusé, E., & Smith, S. L. (2007). TV news and coping: Parents’ use of strategies for reducing children’s news-induced fears. In D. Lemish & M. Götz (Eds.), Children and media in times of conflict and war (pp. 267–286). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muldoon, O. T., & Trew, K. (2000). Children’s experience and adjustment to political conflict in Northern Ireland. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 6, 157–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers-Bowman, K. S., Walker, K., & Myers-Walls, J. A. (2003). A cross-cultural examination of children’s understanding of the enemy. Psychological Reports, 93, 779–790.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers-Walls, J. A. (2004). Children as victims of war and terrorism. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 8, 41–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers-Walls, J. A., Myers-Bowman, K. S., & Pelo, A. (1993). Parents as educators about war and peace. Family Relations, 42, 66–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nasie, M., & Bar-Tal, D. (2012). Sociopsychological infrastructure of an intractable conflict through the eyes of Palestinian children and adolescents. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 18, 3–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oppenheimer, L. (2006). The development of enemy images: A theoretical contribution. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 12, 269–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ovadia, G. (1993). Stereotypes towards Arabs of kindergarten-age children. Unpublished master’s thesis, Tel Aviv University (in Hebrew).

    Google Scholar 

  • Papageorgiou, V., Frangou-Garunovic, A., Iordanidou, R., Yule, W., Smith, P., & Vostanis, P. (2000). War trauma and psychopathology in Bosnian refugee children. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 9, 84–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Podeh, E. (2002). The Arab-Israeli conflict in Israeli history textbooks, 1948-2000. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Punamäki, R. L. (1982). Childhood in the shadow of war: A psychological study on attitudes and emotional life of Israeli and Palestinian children. Current Research on Peace and Violence, 5, 26–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rafman, S., Canfield, J., Barbas, J., & Kaczorowski, J. (1997). Children’s representations of parental loss due to war. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 20, 163–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sadeh, A., Hen-Gal, S., & Tikotzky, L. (2008). Young children’s reactions to war-related stress: A survey and assessment of an innovative intervention. Pediatrics, 121, 46–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sagi-Schwartz, A. (2008). The well being of children living in chronic war zones: The Palestinian-Israeli case. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32, 322–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sagi-Schwartz, A. (2012). Children of war and peace: A human development perspective. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 56, 933–951.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sears, D. O., & Levy, S. (2003). Childhood and adult political development. In D. O. Sears, L. Huddy, & R. Jervis (Eds.), Oxford handbook of political psychology (pp. 60–109). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shamai, M. (2001). Parents’ perceptions of their children in a context of shared political uncertainty. Child and Family Social Work, 6, 249–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slone, M., & Shechner, T. (2009). Psychiatric consequences for Israeli adolescents of protracted political violence: 1998-2004. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 280–289.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sprinzak, D., Bar, E., & Levy-Mazlum, D. (2005). The education system in numbers: 2005. Jerusalem: Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sport Publications Department (in Hebrew).

    Google Scholar 

  • Staub, E. (2003). The psychology of good and evil: The roots of benefiting and harming other. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Straker, G., Mendelsohn, M., Moosa, F., & Tudin, P. (1996). Violent political contexts and the emotional concerns of township youth. Child Development, 67, 46–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H. (1982). Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge, UK/Paris: Cambridge University Press/Maison des Sciences de l’Homme.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teichman, Y., & Bar-Tal, D. (2008). Acquisition and development of shared psychological intergroup repertoire in a context of an intractable conflict. In S. M. Quintana & C. McKown (Eds.), Handbook of race, racism, and the developing child (pp. 452–482). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thabet, A. M., Karim, K., & Vostanis, P. (2006). Trauma exposure in pre-school children in a war zone. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188, 154–158.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tint, B. (2010). History, memory, and intractable conflict. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 27, 239–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNICEF. (2009). Machel study 10-year strategic review: Children and conflict in a changing world. New York, NY: United Nations Children’s Fund.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNICEF. (2013). Syria’s children: A lost generation? Crisis report March 2011-March 2013. New York, NY: United Nations Children’s Fund.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y., Nomura, Y., Pat-Horenczyk, R., Doppelt, O., Abramovitz, R., Brom, D., et al. (2006). Association of direct exposure to terrorism, media exposure to terrorism, and other trauma with emotional and behavioral problems in preschool children. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 363–368.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wertsch, J. (2002). Voices of collective remembering. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Wessells, M. (2006). Child soldiers: From violence to protection. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. (2007). The psychosocial consequences for children of mass violence, terrorism and disasters. International Review of Psychiatry, 19, 263–277.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zahr, L. K. (1996). Effects of war on the behavior of Lebanese preschool children: Influence of home environment and family functioning. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66, 401–408.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

Meytal Nasie is grateful to the Azrieli Foundation for the award of an Azrieli Fellowship.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Meytal Nasie .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Nasie, M. (2016). Young Children’s Experiences and Learning in Intractable Conflicts. In: Sharvit, K., Halperin, E. (eds) A Social Psychology Perspective on The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. Peace Psychology Book Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24841-7_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics