Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Genes and Environments: The Person Revolution

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Unifying Causality and Psychology

  • 1658 Accesses

Abstract

Whereas the introductions to the two prior chapters on genetics and behavior have addressed the fast-pace changes in the field, the present chapter accelerates in this progression. It considers in detail epigenetics, correlated Gene × Environment interactions (rGE), and cultural neuroscience. Moreover, in doing so, it illustrates further the difficulty in separating genes, environments, and the person as distinct entities. Finally, it includes other models pertinent to the present work, such as differential susceptibility. The genes, environment, and person form a complex causal behavioral system, which includes developmental, learning, evolutionary, and contextual factors. Moreover, the interplay among these diverse factors in behavioral causality are so intricate that only the refined types of conceptualization and empirical study as described in the chapter can elucidate the complexity involved.

In epigenesis, among other processes, DNA methylation helps silence genes in their promoter regions. Moreover, the effects can be transmitted over generations through epigenetic marks. The chapter refers to the “methylome” in this regard. [There are other epigenetic processes related to histones and micro-RNA, in particular]. Epigenetic effects could take place prenatally, such as through maternal distress. They could influence development through their genetically modified alterations in critical neurogenetic processes, including in brain regions and related functions, such as in the stress-mediating hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis.

Overall, it is argued that the best metaphorical formula to describe the causes of behavior is not Nature or Nurture or Nature and Nurture but Nature is Nurture, given the apparent Lamarkian-like effects of epigenesis. Some of the epigenesis-susceptible gene polymorphisms involved include NR3C1 (nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group C, member 1), OXTR, BDNF, and COX2 (cytochrome c oxidase subunit II). The work on epigenesis shows how it can lead to either internalization or externalization behavioral difficulties. As for rGE, some of the genetic polymorphisms involved include 5-HTTLPR and D2 (TaqIAI allele). For cultural neuroscience, they include 5-HTTLPR, OXTR, and DRD4.

If rGE illustrates that genes influence environment, for example, through their evocative active effects, cultural neuroscience illustrates how environment (through culture) alters gene expression through genetic susceptibility to differential cultural effects. That being said, in the present book, the person stands as the ultimate influence in behavioral causation. Genes and environment are both passive players relative to our own potential to be in control of our own behavior.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms & profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amaya-Jackson, L., Newman, E., & Lipschitz, D. S. (2000, October). The child PTSD checklist. Paper presented at annual meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Avinun, R., & Knafo, A. (2014). Parenting as a reaction evoked by children’s genotype: A meta-analysis of children-as-twins studies. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18, 87–102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baker-Andresen, D., Ratnu, V. S., & Bredy, T. W. (2013). Dynamic DNA methylation: A prime candidate for genomic metaplasticity and behavioral adaptation. Trends in Neuroscience, 36, 3–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2011). Differential susceptibility to rearing environment depending on dopamine-related genes: New evidence and a meta-analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 39–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, J. C., Boutwell, B. B., Beaver, K. M., & Gibson, C. L. (2013). Analyzing the origins of childhood externalizing behavioral problems. Developmental Psychology, 49, 2272–2284.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beach, S. R. H., Brody, G. H., Todorov, A. A., Gunter, T. D., & Philibert, R. A. (2011). Methylation at 5HTT mediates the impact of child sex abuse on women’s antisocial behavior: An examination of the Iowa adoptee sample. Psychosomatic Medicine, 73, 83–87.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). For better and for worse: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 300–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). The nature (and nurture?) of plasticity in early human development. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 345–351.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borghol, N., Suderman, M., McArdle, W., Racine, A., Hallett, M., Pembrey, M., et al. (2012). Association with early life socio-economic position in adult DNA methylation. International Journal of Epidemiology, 41, 62–74.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Boyce, W. T., & Kobor, M. S. (2015). Development and the epigenome: The “synapse” of gene-environment interplay. Developmental Science, 18, 1–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In T. Husten & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 1643–1647). New York: Elsevier Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851–854.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., et al. (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301, 386–389.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Causadias, J. M. (2013). A roadmap for the integration of culture into developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1375–1398.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheon, B. K., Im, D., Harada, T., Kim, J., Mathur, V. A., Scimeca, J. M., et al. (2011). Cultural influences on neural basis of intergroup empathy. NeuroImage, 57, 642–650.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiao, J. Y. (2009). Cultural neuroscience: A once and future discipline. Progress in Brain Research, 178, 287–304.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiao, J. Y. (2010). Neural basis of social status hierarchy across species. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 20, 803–809.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiao, J. Y. (2011). Cultural neuroscience: Visualizing culture-gene influences on brain function. In J. Decety & J. Cacioppo (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of social neuroscience (pp. 742–762). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiao, J. Y., & Ambady, N. (2007). Cultural neuroscience: Parsing universality and diversity across levels of analysis. In S. Kitayama & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of cultural psychology. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiao, J. Y., & Blizinsky, K. D. (2010). Culture-gene coevolution of individualism-collectivism and the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 277, 529–537.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiao, J. Y., Cheon, B. K., Pornpattananangkul, N., Mrazek, A. J., & Blizinsky, K. D. (2013). Cultural neuroscience: Progress and promise. Psychological Inquiry, 24, 1–19.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chiao, J. Y., Harada, T., Komeda, H., Li, Z., Mano, Y., Saito, D., et al. (2009). Neural basis of individualistic and collectivistic views of self. Human Brain Mapping, 30, 2813–2820.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiao, J. Y., & Immordino-Yang, M. H. (2013). Modularity and the cultural mind: Contributions of cultural neuroscience to cognitive theory. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8, 56–61.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, I., Koo, M., & Choi, J. A. (2007). Individual differences in analytic versus holistic thinking. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 691–705.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costello, E. J., & Angold, A. (1988). Scales to assess child and adolescent depression: Checklists, screens, and nets. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 726–737.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dadds, M. R., Moul, C., Cauchi, A., Dobson-Stone, C., Hawes, D. J., Brennan, J., et al. (2014). Methylation of the oxytocin receptor gene and oxytocin blood levels in the development of psychopathy. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 33–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dadds, M. R., Moul, C., Hawes, D. J., Diaz, A. M., & Brennan, J. (2015). Individual differences in childhood behavior disorders associated with epigenetic modulation of the cortisol receptor gene. Child Development, 86, 1311–1320.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Devlin, A. M., Brain, U., Austin, J., & Oberlander, T. F. (2010). Prenatal exposure to maternal depressed mood and the MTHFRC677T variant affect SLC6A4 methylation in infants at birth. PLoS ONE, 5, e12201. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012201.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, W. W., Balieiro, M. C., Ribeiro, R. P., & Santos, J. E. D. (2008). Cultural consonance, a 5HT2A receptor polymorphism, and depressive symptoms: A longitudinal study of gene × culture interaction in urban Brazil. American Journal of Human Biology, 21, 91–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Essex, M. J., Boyce, W. T., Hertzman, C., Lam, L. L., Armstrong, J. M., Neumann, S. M., et al. (2013). Epigenetic vestiges of early developmental adversity: Childhood stress exposure and DNA methylation in adolescence. Child Development, 84, 58–75.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fraga, M. F., Ballestar, E., Paz, M. F., Ropero, S., Setien, F., Ballestar, M. L., et al. (2005). Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 102, 10604–10609.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, T. B., Russig, H., Weiss, I. C., Gräff, J., Linder, N., Michalon, A., et al. (2010). Epigenetic transmission of the impact of early stress across generations. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 408–415.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gelfand, M. J., Raver, J. L., Nishii, L., Leslie, L. M., Lun, J., Lim, B. C., et al. (2011). Differences between tight and loose cultures: A 33-nation study. Science, 332, 1100–1104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gill, M. (2012). Developmental psychopathology: The role of structural variation in the genome. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1319–1334.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grigorenko, E. L., & Cicchetti, D. (2012). Genomic sciences for developmentalists: The current state of affairs. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1157–1164.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Han, S., & Northoff, G. (2008). Culture-sensitive neural substrates of human cognition: A transcultural neuroimaging approach. Nature Review Neuroscience, 9, 646–654.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Han, S., Northoff, G., Vogeley, K., Wexler, B. E., Kitayama, S., & Varnum, M. E. W. (2013). A cultural neuroscience approach to the biosocial nature of the human brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 335–359.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harden, K. P., Turkheimer, E., & Loehlin, J. C. (2007). Genotype by environment interaction in adolescents’ cognitive aptitude. Behavioral Genetics, 37, 273–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, B. M., Johnson, W., Durbin, C. E., Blonigen, D. M., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2013). Gene-environment correlation in the development of adolescent substance abuse: Selection effects of child personality and mediation via contextual risk factors. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 119–132.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ishii, K., Kim, H. S., Sasaki, J. Y., Shinada, M., & Kusumi, I. (2014). Culture modulates sensitivity to the disappearance of facial expressions associated with serotonin transporter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR). Culture and Brain, 2, 72–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaffee, S. R. (2011). Genotype-environment correlations: Definitions, methods of measurement, and implications for research on adolescent psychopathology. In K. S. Kendler, S. R. Jaffee, & D. Romer (Eds.), The dynamic genome and mental health: The role of genes and environments in youth development (pp. 79–102). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaffee, S. R., & Price, T. S. (2012). The implications of genotype environment correlation for establishing causal processes in psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1253–1264.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jaffee, S. R., Price, T. S., & Reyes, T. M. (2013). Behavior genetics: Past, present, future. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1225–1242.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Juang, L., Syed, M., Cookston, J., Wang, Y., & Kim, S. Y. (2012). Everyday and acculturation-based family conflict among Chinese American parents and adolescents. New Directions in Child and Adolescent Development, 135, 13–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1982). An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: Theoretical considerations and preliminary results. General Hospital Psychiatry, 4, 33–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaliman, P., Álvarez-López, M. J., Cosín-Tomás, M., Rosenkranz, M. A., Lutz, A., & Davidson, R. J. (2014). Rapid changes in histone deacetylases and inflammatory gene expression in expert meditators. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 40, 96–107.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., et al. (1997). Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children-present and life time version (K-SADS-PL): Initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 980–988.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H. S., & Sasaki, J. Y. (2014). Cultural neuroscience: Biology of the mind in cultural contexts. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 487–514.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H. S., & Sherman, D. K. (2007). “Express yourself”: Culture and the effect of self-expression on choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H. S., Sherman, D. K., Mojaverian, T., Sasaki, J. Y., Park, J., Suh, E. M., et al. (2011). Gene-culture interaction: Oxytocin receptor polymorphism (OXTR) and emotion regulation. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2, 665–672.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H. S., Sherman, D. K., Sasaki, J. Y., Xu, J., Chu, T. Q., Ryu, C., et al. (2010). Culture, distress, and oxytocin receptor polymorphism (OXTR) interact to influence emotional support seeking. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 107, 1517–15721.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitayama, S., King, A., Yoon, C., Tompson, S., Huff, S., & Liberzon, I. (2014). The dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) moderates cultural difference in independent versus interdependent social orientation. Psychological Science, 25, 1169–1177.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kitayama, S., & Uskul, A. K. (2011). Culture, mind, and the brain: Current evidence and future directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 419–449.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klahr, A. M., Thomas, K. M., Hopwood, C. J., Klump, K. L., & Burt, A. (2013). Evocative gene-environment correlation in the mother-child relationship: A twin study of interpersonal processes. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 105–118.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Knafo, A., & Jaffee, S. R. (2013). Gene-environment correlation in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knopik, V. S., Maccani, M. A., Francazio, S., & McGeary, J. E. (2012). The epigenetics of maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy and effects on child development. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1377–1390.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Koenen, K. C., Uddin, M., Chang, S.-C., Aiello, A. E., Wildman, D. E., & Goldmann, E. (2011). SLC6A4 methylation modifies the effect of the number of traumatic events on risk of posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 28, 639–647.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Labonté, B., Suderman, M., Maussion, G., Navaro, L., Yerko, V., Mahar, I., et al. (2012). Genome-wide epigenetic regulation by early-life trauma. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 722–731.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Labonté, B., Yerko, V., Gross, J., Mechawar, N., Meaney, M. J., Szyf, M., et al. (2012). Differential glucocorticoid receptor exon 1(B), 1(C), and 1 (H) expression and methylation in suicide completers with a history of childhood abuse. Biological Psychiatry, 72, 41–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marceau, K., Horwitz, B. N., Narusyte, J., Ganiban, J. M., Spotts, E. L., Reiss, D., et al. (2013). Gene-environment correlation underlying the association between parental negativity and adolescent externalizing problems. Child Development, 84, 2031–2046.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, G. M. (2005). Epigenetic drift in aging identical twins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 102, 10413–10414.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGowan, P. O., & Roth, T. L. (2015). Epigenetic pathways through which experiences become linked with biology. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 637–678.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McGowan, P. O., Sasaki, A., D’Alessio, A. C., Dymov, S., Labonté, B., Szyf, M., et al. (2009). Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain associates with childhood abuse. Nature Neuroscience, 12, 342–348.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McGowan, P. O., Suderman, M., Sasaki, A., Huang, T. C., Hallett, M., Meaney, M. J., & Szyf, M. (2011). Broad epigenetic signature of maternal care in the brain of adult rats. PloS ONE, 6, e14739. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014739.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meaney, M. J. (2010). Epigenetics and the biological definition of gene × environment interactions. Child Development, 81, 41–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mill, J., & Heijmans, B. T. (2013). From promises to practical strategies in epigenetic epidemiology. Nature Reviews Genetics, 14, 585–594.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mills-Koonce, W. R., Propper, C. B., Gariepy, J. L., Blair, C., Garrett-Peters, P., & Cox, M. J. (2007). Bidirectional genetic and environmental influences on mother and child behavior: The family system as the unit of analyses. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 1073–1087.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Monk, C., Spicer, J., & Champagne, F. A. (2012). Linking prenatal maternal adversity to developmental outcomes in infants: The role of epigenetic pathways. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1361–1376.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mrazek, A. J., Chiao, J. Y., Blizinsky, K. D., Lun, J., & Gelfand, M. J. (2013). The role of culture-gene coevolution in morality judgment: Examining the interplay between tightness-looseness and allelic variation of the serotonin transporter gene. Culture and Brain, 1, 100–117.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Naples, A., Katz, L., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2012). Lexical decision as an endophenotype for reading comprehension: An exploration of an association. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1345–1360.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nemeroff, C. B., & Binder, E. (2014). The preeminent role of childhood abuse and neglect in vulnerability to major psychiatric disorders: Toward elucidating the underlying neurobiological mechanisms. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53, 395–397.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nikolova, Y. S., & Hariri, A. R. (2015). Can we observe epigenetic effects on human brain function? Trends in Cognitive Science, 19, 366–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oberlander, T. F., Weinberg, J., Papsdorf, M., Grunau, R., Misri, S., & Devlin, A. M. (2008). Prenatal exposure to maternal depression, neonatal methylation of human glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) and infant cortisol stress responses. Epigenetics, 3, 97–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olsson, C. A., Foley, D. L., Parkinson-Bates, M., Byrnes, G., McKenzie, M., Patton, G. C., et al. (2010). Prospects for epigenetic research within cohort studies of psychological disorder: A pilot investigation of a peripheral cell marker of epigenetic risk for depression. Biological Psychology, 83, 159–165.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ouellet-Morin, L., Wong, C. C., Danese, A., Pariante, C. M., Papadopoulos, A. S., Mill, J., et al. (2013). Increased serotonin transporter gene (SERT) DNA methylation is associated with bullying victimization and blunted cortisol response to stress in childhood: A longitudinal study of discordant monozygotic twins. Psychological Medicine, 43, 1813–1823.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pener-Tessler, R., Avinun, R., Uzefovsky, F., Edelman, S., Ebstein, R. P., & Knafo, A. (2013). Boys’ serotonin transporter genotype affects maternal behavior through self-control: A case of evocative gene-environment correlation. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 151–162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., & Loehlin, J. C. (1977). Genotype-environment interaction and correlation in the analysis of human behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 309–322.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, N. D., Sloan, E. K., Bailey, M. T., Arevalo, J. M., Miller, G. E., Chen, E., et al. (2013). Social stress up-regulates inflammatory gene expression in the leukocyte transcriptome via beta-adrenergic induction of myelopoiesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 110, 16574–16579.

    Google Scholar 

  • Propper, C. B., Shanahan, M. J., Russo, R., & Mills-Koonce, W. R. (2012). Evocative gene-parenting correlations and academic performance at first grade: An exploratory study. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1265–1282.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, F. W., Helmers, K., & Trickett, P. K. (1993). Development, reliability, and validity of a child dissociation scale. Child Abuse & Neglect, 17, 731–741.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radtke, K. M., Ruf, M., Gunter, H. M., Dohrmann, K., Schauer, M., & Elbert, T. (2011). Transgenerational impact of intimate partner violence on methylation in the promoter of the glucocorticoid receptor. Translational Psychiatry, 1, e21. doi:10.1038/tp.2011.21.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roth, T. L. (2013). Epigenetic mechanisms in the development of behavior: Advances, challenges, and future promises of a new field. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1279–1291.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rucker, J. J. H., & McGuffin, P. (2012). Genomic structural variation in psychiatric disorders. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1335–1344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sasaki, J. Y. (2013). Promise and challenges surrounding culture-gene coevolution and gene-culture interactions. Psychological Inquiry, 24, 64–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sasaki, J. Y., Kim, H. S., Mojaverian, T., Kelley, L. D. S., Park, I. Y., & Janušonis, S. (2013). Religion priming differentially increases prosocial behavior among variants of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8, 209–215.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sasaki, J. Y., Kim, H., & Xu, J. (2011). Religion and well-being: An analysis of an oxytocin receptor polymorphism (OXTR) and culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42, 1394–1405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzer, R., Mueller, J., & Greenglass, E. (1999). Assessment of perceived general self-efficacy on the Internet: Data collection in cyberspace. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 12, 145–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singelis, T. M. (1994). The measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 580–891.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suderman, M., McGowan, P. O., Sasaki, A., Huang, T. C. T., Hallett, M., Meaney, M. J., Turecki, G., & Szyf, M. (2012). Conserved epigenetic sensitivity to early life experience in the rat and human hippocampus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA, 109, 17266–17272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sulik, M. J., Blair, C., Berry, D., Mills-Koonce, R., & Greenberg, M. (2015). Early parenting and development of externalizing behavior problems: Longitudinal mediation through children’s executive function. Child Development, 86, 1588–1603.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Szyf, M., & Bick, J. (2013). DNA methylation: A mechanism for embedding early life experiences in the genome. Child Development, 84, 49–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Way, N., Hughes, D., Yoshikawa, H., Kalman, R. K., & Niwa, E. Y. (2008). Parents’ goals for children: The dynamic coexistence of individualism and collectivism in cultures and individuals. Social Development, 17, 183–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tucker-Drob, E. M., Briley, D. A., & Harden, K. P. (2013). Genetic and environmental influences on cognition across development and context. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 349–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyrka, A. R., Parade, S. H., Eslinger, N. M., Marsit, C. J., Lesseur, C., Armstrong, D. A., et al. (2015). Methylation of exons 1D, 1F, 1H of the glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter and exposure to adversity in preschool-aged children. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 577–585.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tyrka, A. R., Price, L. H., Marsit, C., Walters, O. C., & Carpenter, L. L. (2012). Childhood adversity and epigenetic modulation of the leukocyte glucocorticoid receptor. Preliminary findings in healthy adults. PLoS ONE, 7, e30148. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0030148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uddin, M., Koenen, K. C., Aiello, A. E., Wildman, D. E., de los Santos, R., & Galea, S. (2011). Epigenetic and inflammatory marker profiles associated with depression in a community-based epidemiologic sample. Psychological Medicine, 41, 997–1007.

    Google Scholar 

  • Unternaehrer, E., Luers, P., Mills, J., Dempster, E., Meyer, A. H., Staehli, S., et al. (2012). Dynamic changes in DNA methylation of stress-associated genes (OXTR, BDNF) after acute psychosocial stress. Translational Psychiatry, 2, e150. doi:10.1038/tp.2012.77.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Ebstein, R. P. (2011). Methylation matters in child development: Toward developmental behavioral epigenetics. Child Development Perspectives, 5, 305–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • van IJzendoorn, M. H., Caspers, K., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Beach, S. R. H., & Philibert, R. (2010). Methylation matters: Interaction between methylation density and 5HTT genotype predicts unresolved loss or trauma. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 405–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vijayendran, M., Beach, S., Plume, J. M., Brody, G., & Philibert, R. (2012). Effects of genotype and child abuse on DNA methylation and gene expression at the serotonin transporter. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 3, 55. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00055.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vogeley, K., & Roepstorff, A. (2009). Contextualising culture and social cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 511–516.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, E., Ding, Y.-C., Flodman, P., Kidd, J. R., Kidd, K. K., Grady, D. L., et al. (2004). The genetic architecture of selection at the human dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene locus. American Journal of Human Genetics, 74, 931–944.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Weder, N., Zhang, H., Jensen, K., Yang, B. Z., Simen, A., Jackowski, A., et al. (2014). Child abuse, depression, and methylation in genes involved with stress, neural plasticity, and brain circuitry. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 53, 417–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zovkic, I. B., Meadows, J. P., Kaas, G. A., & Sweatt, J. D. (2013). Interindividual variability in stress susceptibility: A role for epigenetic mechanisms in PTSD. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 4, 60. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00060.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Toronto, ON, Canada

    Gerald Young

Authors
  1. Gerald Young
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Young, G. (2016). Genes and Environments: The Person Revolution. In: Unifying Causality and Psychology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24094-7_11

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation