Abstract
The human organism is a chemical machine in that it is only able to use chemical bond energy obtained from the oxidation of energy substrates supplied by food and converted for the performance of all the vital functions. It is very important for an individual to know his daily energy requirements because this constitutes the starting point for the creation of an optimal diet. We must distinguish between calorie intake, consisting of what is introduced daily with food intake, energy expenditure related to all the voluntary and involuntary activities carried out by the individual, and finally his energy requirements which are closely related to expenditure. An individual’s energy expenditure depends on three factors: basal metabolism , dietary-induced thermogenesis and physical activity . Quantifying energy expenditure is the starting point for determining energy requirements. Consequently, nutrition is a mathematical equation, if intake exceeds expenditure the body gradually gains weight, on the contrary, if intake is lower the body loses weight. A healthy body should maintain a desirable weight over time in order to maintain all its vital functions as long as possible.
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Notes
- 1.
Certain body processes are of an electrical or thermal nature but these represent a minimal and negligible part of total energy functions.
- 2.
We speak of thermal neutrality when the individual presents no heat exchanges and the external temperature is between 26 and 30 °C. It goes without saying that if the temperature increases or decreases the body will be subject to a greater energy expenditure.
- 3.
Other definitions are given by the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. 2011 where Basal Metabolism is referred to as “the rate at which energy is used by an organism at complete rest, measured in humans by the heat given off per unit time, and expressed as the calories released per kilogram of body weight or per square meter of body surface per hour” and by the Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/basal, retrieved May 19, 2015, which states that “metabolism is the minimal amount of energy necessary to maintain respiration, circulation, and other vital body functions while fasting and at total rest”.
- 4.
Other terms used as synonyms for the thermic effect of food are post-prandial effect (PPT), thermic effect of meal (TEM) and diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT).
- 5.
This is the main reason justifying scientific research into the correlation between high-protein diets, the acceleration of thermogenesis and subsequent weight loss.
- 6.
In the past, the Cal or large calorie was used as a measuring unit for food energy, corresponding to 1 kcal or 1,000 small calories (cal).
- 7.
The following example can facilitate the use of the two units of measurement used in the food industry: 12 kcal correspond to 50.241 kJ (12 kcal × 4.1868) and 12 kJ are equivalent to 2.866 kcal (12 kJ × 0.2388).
- 8.
For further information on the calculation of the average requirement in relation to age, sex and intensity of physical activity. See EFSA (2013).
- 9.
This refers to a basal metabolism value equal to 1.680 kcal per day, calculated on an average 30 year-old male adult with a BMI of 22.5 kg/m2.
- 10.
The evaluation of energy expenditure can be performed on individuals, on specific groups (e.g. where people are under or overweight) or on a particular population. In the present volume reference will be made only to the equations which can be applied for individuals.
- 11.
In 1981 the equation was revised and an addition made in order to calculate the basal metabolism of children (Caldwell and Caldwell 1981). For the sake of completeness, we include it here: For children, BM (kcal/24 h) = 22 + (31.05 × Weight) + (1.16 × Height).
- 12.
1 MET corresponds to 3.5 ml of O2/kg body weight/minute equal to 0.01768 kcal/kg of body weight equivalent to about 1 kcal/kg body weight/hour. The caloric equivalent would be that 1 liter of O2 corresponds to 5 kcal. For example, a man weighing 70 kg will have a MET of 3.5 ml O2 × 70/min = 245 ml O2/min, equivalent to 1.680 kcal per day.
- 13.
The Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation on Energy and Protein Requirements concluded that there would be many advantages in expressing the various components of total energy expenditure (TEE) as a multiple of the basal metabolic rate (BMR). BMR is the most dominant component of TEE, and this is the primary reason for expressing the energy requirement (primarily BMR plus energy requirements for physical activity) as a multiple of the BMR.
- 14.
To be precise, in his original work, Mifflin focuses on the calculation of Resting Energy Expenditure (REE) which corresponds to the energy used by an individual at rest for 24 h and coincides, though not entirely, with BM.
- 15.
A simplification of the equation and the subdivision between men and women leads to the following equations which deliver results very different from those given by the original formula:
$$ {\text{BM }}\left( {\text{males}} \right) = \left( {10\,{ \times }\,{\text{Weight}}\text{ } + \text{ }6.25\,{ \times }\,{\text{Height}} - 5 \times {\text{Age}} - 5} \right){\text{ and BM }}\left( {\text{females}} \right) = \, \left( {10\times {\text{Weight}}\text{ } + \text{ }6.25 \times {\text{Height}} - 5 \times {\text{Age}} - 161} \right) $$.
- 16.
For further information about the difference between LBM and FFM, see Cunningham (1990).
- 17.
Schofield and other authors have reviewed the literature produced worldwide regarding the calculation of energy requirements and have developed new equations to calculate the basal metabolic rate to facilitate the Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization/United Nations University joint expert consultation on energy and protein requirements. A meeting of experts was convened in Rome from 5 to 17 October 1981 for the purpose of reviewing energy and protein requirements.
- 18.
Wrist circumference is an indicator of body build. In fact, we talk about someone who is tall and thin or of slight build when the wrist circumference is less than 14 cm for women and 16 cm for men. We talk of someone w-ho is of average build in the case of a wrist circumference between 14 and 18 cm for women and between 16 and 20 for a men. Finally, an individual is considered stocky or of heavy build with a wrist circumference greater than 18 cm for women and 20 cm for men.
- 19.
To have more precise data on the calculation of the energy needs of children and teenagers, related to the intensity of physical activity, please consult the website: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/it/efsajournal/doc/3005.pdf.
- 20.
Weight is only one of the anthropometric measurements commonly used to evaluate nutritional health. Indeed, build, circumference, body diameters and skinfold measurements may also be used.
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Tarabella, A., Burchi, B. (2016). Factors Influencing Energy Balance: Estimation Methods. In: Aware Food Choices: Bridging the Gap Between Consumer Knowledge About Nutritional Requirements and Nutritional Information. SpringerBriefs in Food, Health, and Nutrition. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23856-2_4
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