Abstract
On providing a brief summary of the arguments presented in the book Chap. 6 turns to discuss the potential for combining a wider range of life-style practices for greater effects. Examples include classical education, physical as well as mental training and playing specialized computer games. A brief resume of Aristotle’s account of eudaimonia including the idea that agents who are successful in instilling virtues plausibly can be taken to lead happier lives than those who fail to do so is presented. This Chapter also comments on the potential of embedding structures and how such measures might incentivize more pro-social behavior.
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- 1.
Brefzcynski-Lewis JA, Lutz A, Schaefer HS, et al. (2007). Neural correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation practitioners. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 104(27):11483–8. Kerr CE, Josyula K, Littenberg R. (2011). Developing an observing attitude: an analysis of meditation diaries in an MBSR clinical trial. Clin Psychol Psychother. 18(1):80–93. Gilbert, P. (2010). Compassion focused therapy: Distinctive features. New York, NY: Routledge.
- 2.
For more on equity see Book 5.9 of the Nicomachean Ethics.
- 3.
Note that while training might be ‘the virtuous thing to do’ we do not wish to advance the claim that it would be morally compulsory.
- 4.
See Chap. 3 for the full discussion.
- 5.
Broadly understood as; responsible, reflected and rational decision-making.
- 6.
See Chap. 1.
- 7.
Britton, W. B., Lindahl, J. R., Cahn, B. R., Davis, J. H., & Goldman, R. E. (2014). Awakening is not a metaphor: the effects of Buddhist meditation practices on basic wakefulness. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1307(1), 64–81. Ricard, M., Lutz, A., & Davidson, R. J. (2014). Mind of the Meditator. Scientific American, 311(5), 38–45. Hasenkamp, W., Wilson-Mendenhall, C. D., Duncan, E., & Barsalou, L. W. (2012). Mind wandering and attention during focused meditation: a fine-grained temporal analysis of fluctuating cognitive states. Neuroimage, 59(1), 750–760. Gilbert, P. (2010). Compassion focused therapy: Distinctive features. New York, NY: Routledge.
Klimecki, O. M., Leiberg, S., Ricard, M., & Singer, T. (2013). Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience, nst060.
- 8.
Pharmacological cognitive enhancers, or PCEs, are used to treat neurodegenerative (e.g. Alzheimer’s and dementia) and neuropsychiatric disorders (e.g. schizophrenia and ADHD).
- 9.
As should be clear by now we have nothing against biomedical enhancement in principal. Rather, our position is that it (at least on its own) is a lesser option today, and in the foreseeable future.
- 10.
Evidently much more empirical research as to the effects, their generalizability and how long they last, is required.
- 11.
See e.g. Clark, V. P., & Parasuraman, R. (2014). Neuroenhancement: enhancing brain and mind in health and in disease. Neuroimage, 85, 889–894. Granic, I., Lobel, A., & Engels, R. C. (2014). The benefits of playing video games. American Psychologist, 69(1), 66.
- 12.
For interesting examples of how reading fictional literature in an organized way has improved social capacity, empathy and other life -skills see e.g. Kidd, D. C., & Castano, E. (2013). Reading literary fiction improves theory of mind. Science, 342(6156), 377–380. McLellan, M. F., & Jones, A. H. (1996). Why literature and medicine?. The Lancet, 348(9020), 109–111. Billington, J. (2011). 'Reading for Life': Prison Reading Groups in Practice and Theory. Critical Survey, 23(3), 67–85.
- 13.
Statement issued on Oct 14, 2014 by The Stanford Center for Longevity and the Max Planck Institute for Human Development.
- 14.
Clark, V. P., & Parasuraman, R. (2014). Neuroenhancement: enhancing brain and mind in health and in disease. Neuroimage, 85, 889–894. Evidently such cost-benefit models must take into consideration the ethical aspects that attach.
- 15.
Curlik, D. M., & Shors, T. J. (2013). Training your brain: Do mental and physical (MAP) training enhance cognition through the process of neurogenesis in the hippocampus?. Neuropharmacology, 64, 506–514.
- 16.
Pharmacological cognitive enhancers, or PCEs, are used to treat neurodegenerative (e.g. Alzheimer’s and dementia) and neuropsychiatric disorders (e.g. schizophrenia and ADHD).
- 17.
As for the potential for further acceleration of technological development consider Moore’s Law. Plausibly such scenarios would offer both new/increased challenges as well as solutions.
- 18.
Broadly speaking enhancement can be split into three different types based on the primary area of improvement; physical, cognitive and moral.
- 19.
For an introduction to the debate see e.g. Persson, I., & Savulescu, J. (2014). Reply to commentators on Unfit for the Future. Journal of medical ethics, medethics-2013. Persson, I., & Savulescu, J. (2014). Should moral bioenhancement be compulsory? Reply to Vojin Rakic. Journal of medical ethics, 40(4), 251–252. Carter, J. A., & Gordon, E. C. (2014). On cognitive and moral enhancement: A reply to Savulescu and Persson. Bioethics. Persson I. & Savulescu J. Getting Moral Enhancement Right. Bioethics 2013; 27(3): 124–131. Persson, I., & Savulescu, J. (2010). Moral transhumanism. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 35(6), 656–669. Douglas, T. (2008). Moral enhancement. Journal of applied philosophy, 25(3), 228–245. Shook, J. R. (2012). Neuroethics and the possible types of moral enhancement. AJoB Neuroscience, 3(4), 3–14. Sylvia, T., Guy, K., Sarah, M., Julian, S., Neil, L., Miles, H., & Cowen, P. J. (2013). Beta adrenergic blockade reduces utilitarian judgement. Biological psychology, 92(2), 323–328.
- 20.
For the full argument see Fröding, B. E. E. (2011). Cognitive enhancement, virtue ethics and the good life. Neuroethics, 4(3), 223–234.
- 21.
Zeidan, F., Johnson, S. K., Diamond, B. J., David, Z., & Goolkasian, P. (2010). Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: evidence of brief mental training. Consciousness and cognition, 19(2), 597–605. Boettcher, J., Åström, V., Påhlsson, D., Schenström, O., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2014). Internet-based mindfulness treatment for anxiety disorders: A randomized controlled trial. Behavior therapy, 45(2), 241–253.
- 22.
Notably this is not an attempt to argue that society as a whole ought to be organized in such a way that it promotes, or encourages, virtuous behavior. We do, however, believe that there are sensible ways to construct a eudaemonia-based view of social organization.
- 23.
According to Aristotle, however, there is most certainly such a connection. “It is evident that the best politeia is that arrangement according to which anyone whatsoever might do best and live a flourishing life.” Aristotle (1997). The Politics, (Politics: books VII and VIII/translated with a commentary by Richard Kraut), Oxford: Clarendon press. 1323a 14–19.
- 24.
This has been discussed in e.g. different areas of social psychology, including the famous experiments by Zimbardo and Milgram. Zimbardo, P.G. (2007). The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil. New York: Random House. Milgram, Stanley (1963). “Behavioral Study of Obedience”. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4): 371–378.
- 25.
For a good discussion on how to trust wisely see e.g. Levy, N. (2006). Open-mindedness and the duty to gather evidence. Public Affairs Quarterly, 55–66.
- 26.
See Fröding B. and Juth N., Cognitive enhancement and the principle of need. Currently under review.
- 27.
As previously noted ‘good decision-making’ it could, at least in the context of this book, be understood as ‘responsible, reflected and rational decision-making’.
- 28.
Avoiding the tragedy of the commons scenarios as described by e.g. Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162(3859), 1243–1248.
- 29.
For a discussion on reasonable pluralism see Rawls, J. (2005). Political liberalism. Columbia University Press, USA. Reflective equilibriums and the role of intuitions see e.g. Brun, G. (2014). Reflective Equilibrium Without Intuitions?. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 17(2), 237–252.
- 30.
For a discussion on what Aristotle considered different kinds of good lives, The Politics, Book 4.1.
- 31.
To Aristotle our likes and dislikes indicate whether or not we have acquired the virtues to the full extent and the virtuous only take pleasure in doing the fine and noble. This might sound strange as the good life can involve pain and death and loss but a reasonable reading might be that although virtues such as courage might bring great physical pain, doing the right thing means achieving one’s goals and is thus still pleasurable.
- 32.
There are some potential similarities in enhancing the instilling of the virtues we discuss here, and e.g. the discussion about and implementation of physical activity, which has received an increasing interest in society, both from the medical community as well as from the educational system.
Vuori, I. M., Lavie, C. J., & Blair, S. N. (2013, December). Physical activity promotion in the health care system. In Mayo Clinic Proceedings (Vol. 88, No. 12, pp. 1446–1461). Elsevier. Babey, S. H., Wu, S., & Cohen, D. (2014). How can schools help youth increase physical activity? An economic analysis comparing school-based programs. Preventive medicine, 69, S55–S60.
- 33.
Note that the type of intuitions that we have in mind here is not the fast, instinctive, unreflected, gut-driven and automatic thinking often described as System 1 thinking in the literature. For more on this see Chap. 1 and the discussion on Kahneman and Twersky.
- 34.
See e.g. Global Risks 2014 Report from the Davos meeting http://www.weforum.org/reports/global-risks-2014-report.
- 35.
- 36.
For some rather dystopic reflections on such challenges see e.g. Byung-Chul Han, (2013) Im Schwarm. Matthes & Seitz Verlag, Berlin.
- 37.
Evidently we are not implying that there is no such discussion today but, rather, that it can become better informed and more productive and solution orientated.
- 38.
Fitz, N. S., Nadler, R., Manogaran, P., Chong, E. W., & Reiner, P. B. (2013). Public attitudes toward cognitive enhancement. Neuroethics, 1–16.
- 39.
Fitz, N. S., Nadler, R., Manogaran, P., Chong, E. W., & Reiner, P. B. (2013). Public attitudes toward cognitive enhancement. Neuroethics, 1–16.
- 40.
Note that the capacity we are primarily interested in is cognitive flexibility and how that can be conducive to epistemic virtue. In other words we are not looking at a general increase of IQ and what may be the effects of such changes. However, we have identified one study where relational frame training (which is the theoretical basis for Acceptance and commitment therapy) seem to increase the IQ of the participating students: Cassidy, S., Roche, B. & Hayes, S. C. (2011). A relational frame training intervention to raise Intelligence Quotients: A pilot study. The Psychological Record, 61, 173–198.
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Fröding, B., Osika, W. (2015). Conclusions. In: Neuroenhancement: how mental training and meditation can promote epistemic virtue.. SpringerBriefs in Ethics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23517-2_6
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