Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Preventive Nutrition pp 255–271Cite as

n-3 and n-6 Fatty Acids Reduce Risk for Cardiovascular Disease

  • Chapter

  • 2486 Accesses

Part of the book series: Nutrition and Health ((NH))

Abstract

The long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) of both the n-3 and n-6 families have been extensively studied in a wide variety of disease conditions, but in none more than cardiovascular disease (CVD). The principal n-6 fatty acid in the diet is linoleic acid, and for the n-3 family, the plant-derived alpha-linoleic acid and the major marine-derived eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. Current evidence indicates that higher vs. lower intakes of both families of fatty acids reduce risk for CVD. This review examines the latest evidence to support that claim. Sources of both families of fatty acids, their mechanisms of action, and the utility of blood fatty acid testing are also discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Harris WS. Stearidonic acid-enhanced soybean oil: a plant-based source of (n-3) fatty acids for foods. J Nutr. 2012;142:600S–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Harris WS. Stearidonic acid as a ‘pro-eicosapentaenoic acid’. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2012;23:30–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Gillies PJ, Harris WS, Kris-Etherton PM. Omega-3 fatty acids in food and pharma: the enabling role of biotechnology. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2011;13:467–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Plourde M, Cunnane SC. Extremely limited synthesis of long chain polyunsaturates in adults: implications for their essentiality and use as supplements. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2007;32:619–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. De Caterina R. N-3 fatty acids in cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:2439–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Saravanan P, Davidson NC, Schmidt EB, Calder PC. Cardiovascular effects of marine omega-3 fatty acids. Lancet. 2010;376:540–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Mozaffarian D, Wu JHY. Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: effects on risk factors, molecular pathways and clinical events. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;58:2047–67.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Kromhout D, Yasuda S, Geleijnse JM, Shimokawa H. Fish oil and omega-3 fatty acids in cardiovascular disease: do they really work? Eur Heart J. 2012;33:436–43.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Lavie CJ, Milani RV, Mehra MR, Ventura HO. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular diseases. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54:585–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Harris WS, Dayspring TD, Moran TJ. Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: new developments and applications. Postgrad Med. 2013;125:100–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Flock MR, Harris WS, Kris-Etherton PM. Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids: time to establish a dietary reference intake. Nutr Rev. 2013;71:692–707.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Fleming JA, Kris-Etherton PM. The evidence for alpha-linolenic acid and cardiovascular disease benefits: comparisons with eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. Adv Nutr. 2014;5:863s–76.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Harris WS. Are n-3 fatty acids still cardioprotective? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2013;16:141–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Rizos EC, Ntzani EE, Bika E, Kostapanos MS, Elisaf MS. Association between omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and risk of major cardiovascular disease events: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2012;308:1024–33.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Delgado-Lista J, Perez-Martinez P, Lopez-Miranda J, Perez-Jimenez F. Long chain omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. Br J Nutr. 2012;107 Suppl 2:S201–13.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Trikalinos TA, Lee J, Moorthy D, Yu WW, Lau J, Lichtenstein AH, Chung M. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on mortality across diverse settings: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials and prospective cohorts. Rockville: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Kwak SM, Myung SK, Lee YJ, Seo HG. Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acid supplements (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 2012;172:686–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Kotwal S, Jun M, Sullivan D, Perkovic V, Neal B. Omega 3 fatty acids and cardiovascular outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2012;5:808–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. James MJ, Sullivan TR, Metcalf RG, Cleland LG. Pitfalls in the use of randomised controlled trials for fish oil studies with cardiac patients. Br J Nutr. 2014;112:812–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. A study of AMR101 to evaluate its ability to reduce cardiovascular events in high risk patients with hypertriglyceridemia and on statin (REDUCE-IT). http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01492361. Accessed 25 Apr 2013.

  21. Harris WS, Mozaffarian D, Lefevre M, Toner CD, Colombo J, Cunnane SC, Holden JM, Klurfeld DM, Morris MC, Whelan J. Towards establishing dietary reference intakes for eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. J Nutr. 2009;139:804S–19.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Chowdhury R, Warnakula S, Kunutsor S, Crowe F, Ward HA, Johnson L, Franco OH, Butterworth AS, Forouhi NG, Thompson SG, et al. Association of dietary, circulating, and supplement fatty acids with coronary risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160:398–406.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Harris WS, Miller M, Tighe AP, Davidson MH, Schaefer EJ. Omega-3 fatty acids and coronary heart disease risk: clinical and mechanistic perspectives. Atherosclerosis. 2008;197:12–24.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Jump DB, Depner CM, Tripathy S. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and cardiovascular disease. J Lipid Res. 2012;53:2525–45.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Shearer GC, Newman JW. Impact of circulating esterified eicosanoids and other oxylipins on endothelial function. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2009;11:403–10.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Arnold C, Markovic M, Blossey K, Wallukat G, Fischer R, Dechend R, Konkel A, von Schacky C, Luft FC, Muller DN, et al. Arachidonic acid-metabolizing cytochrome P450 enzymes are targets of {omega}-3 fatty acids. J Biol Chem. 2010;285:32720–33.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Wada M, Delong CJ, Hong YH, Rieke CJ, Song I, Sidhu RS, Yuan C, Warnock M, Schmaier AH, Yokoyama C, et al. Enzymes and receptors of prostaglandin pathways with arachidonic acid-derived versus eicosapentaenoic acid-derived substrates and products. J Biol Chem. 2007;282:22254–66.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Serhan CN, Petasis NA. Resolvins and protectins in inflammation resolution. Chem Rev. 2011;111:5922–43.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Jump DB. Fatty acid regulation of hepatic lipid metabolism. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2011;14:115–20.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Balk EM, Lichtenstein AH, Chung M, Kupelnick B, Chew P, Lau J. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on serum markers of cardiovascular disease risk: a systematic review. Atherosclerosis. 2006;189:19–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Geleijnse JM, Giltay EJ, Grobbee DE, Donders AR, Kok FJ. Blood pressure response to fish oil supplementation: meta-regression analysis of randomized trials. J Hypertens. 2002;20:1493–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Violi F, Pignatelli P, Basili S. Nutrition, supplements, and vitamins in platelet function and bleeding. Circulation. 2010;121:1033–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Mozaffarian D, Geelen A, Brouwer IA, Geleijnse JM, Zock PL, Katan MB. Effect of fish oil on heart rate in humans: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Circulation. 2005;112:1945–52.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Rauch B, Senges J. The effects of supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on cardiac rhythm: anti-arrhythmic, pro-arrhythmic, both or neither? It depends…. Front Physiol. 2012;3:57.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Cawood AL, Ding R, Napper FL, Young RH, Williams JA, Ward MJ, Gudmundsen O, Vige R, Payne SP, Ye S, et al. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) from highly concentrated n-3 fatty acid ethyl esters is incorporated into advanced atherosclerotic plaques and higher plaque EPA is associated with decreased plaque inflammation and increased stability. Atherosclerosis. 2010;212:252–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Thies F, Garry JM, Yaqoob P, Rerkasem K, Williams J, Shearman CP, Gallagher PJ, Calder PC, Grimble RF. Association of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids with stability of atherosclerotic plaques: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2003;361:477–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Pase MP, Grima NA, Sarris J. Do long-chain n-3 fatty acids reduce arterial stiffness? A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Nutr. 2011;106:974–80.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Mariani J, Doval HC, Nul D, Varini S, Grancelli H, Ferrante D, Tognoni G, Macchia A. N-3 polyunsaturated Fatty acids to prevent atrial fibrillation: updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Am Heart Assoc. 2013;2:e005033.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Mozaffarian D, Marchioli R, Macchia A, Silletta MG, Ferrazzi P, Gardner TJ, Latini R, Libby P, Lombardi F, O’Gara PT, et al. Fish oil and postoperative atrial fibrillation: the Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Prevention of Post-operative Atrial Fibrillation (OPERA) randomized trial. JAMA. 2012;308:2001–11.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, Appel LJ. Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2002;106:2747–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Mosca L, Benjamin EJ, Berra K, Bezanson JL, Dolor RJ, Lloyd-Jones DM, Newby LK, Pina IL, Roger VL, Shaw LJ, et al. Effectiveness-based guidelines for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in women—2011 update: a guideline from the American heart association. Circulation. 2011;123:1243–62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Yokoyama M, Origasa H, Matsuzaki M, Matsuzawa Y, Saito Y, Ishikawa Y, Oikawa S, Sasaki J, Hishida H, Itakura H, et al. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. Lancet. 2007;369:1090–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Services USDoAaUSDoHaH. Dietary guidelines for Americans, 2010. 7th ed. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Kris-Etherton PM, Innis S. Position of the American dietetic association and dietitians of Canada: dietary fatty acids. J Am Diet Assoc. 2007;107:1599–611.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Fatty-Acids S. Recommendations for intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids in healthy adults. http://www.issfal.org/news-links/resources/publications/PUFAIntakeReccomdFinalReport.pdf.

  46. Harris WS, Mozaffarian D, Rimm EB, Kris-Etherton PM, Rudel LL, Appel LJ, Engler MM, Engler MB, Sacks FM. Omega-6 fatty acids and risk for cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American heart association nutrition committee. Circulation. 2009;119:902–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Ramsden CE, Hibbeln JR, Majchrzak SF, Davis JM. N-6 fatty acid-specific and mixed polyunsaturate dietary interventions have different effects on CHD risk: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Nutr. 2010;104:1586–600.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Blasbalg TL, Hibbeln JR, Ramsden CE, Majchrzak SF, Rawlings RR. Changes in consumption of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the United States during the 20th century. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:950–62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Hibbeln JR, Nieminen LR, Blasbalg TL, Riggs JA, Lands WE. Healthy intakes of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids: estimations considering worldwide diversity. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83:1483S–93.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Lands WE. Diets could prevent many diseases. Lipids. 2003;38:317–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Simopoulos AP. Evolutionary aspects of diet and essential fatty acids. World Rev Nutr Diet. 2001;88:18–27.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Chilton FH. Inflammation Nation. New York: Chilton Health Technologies, LLC; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Vannice G, Rasmussen H. Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics: dietary fatty acids for healthy adults. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2014;114:136–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. National Health and Medical Research Council. Nutrient reference values for Australia and New Zealand. 2005. https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/n35.pdf. Last accessed 8/26/2015

    Google Scholar 

  55. US Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary guidelines for Americans. 2005. http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/report/default.htm.

  56. FAO. Fats and fatty acids in human nutrition: report of an expert consultation. FAO Food Nutr Pap. 2010:1–180.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Mozaffarian D, Micha R, Wallace S. Effects on coronary heart disease of increasing polyunsaturated fat in place of saturated fat: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS Med. 2010;7:e1000252.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Ramsden CE, Zamora D, Leelarthaepin B, Majchrzak-Hong SF, Faurot KR, Suchindran CM, Ringel A, Davis JM, Hibbeln JR. Use of dietary linoleic acid for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease and death: evaluation of recovered data from the Sydney Diet Heart Study and updated meta-analysis. BMJ. 2013;346:e8707.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Harris W. Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids: partners in prevention. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010;13:125–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Farvid MS, Ding M, Pan A, Sun Q, Chiuve SE, Steffen LM, Willett WC, Hu FB. Dietary linoleic acid and risk of coronary heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Circulation. 2014;130:1568–78.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Wu JH, Lemaitre RN, King IB, Song X, Psaty BM, Siscovick DS, Mozaffarian D. Circulating omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids and total and cause-specific mortality: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation. 2014;130:1245–53.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Nicolosi RJ, Rogers EJ. Regulation of plasma lipoprotein levels by dietary triglycerides enriched with different fatty acids. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997;29:1422–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Libby P. Inflammation in atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2012;32:2045–51.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Fritsche KL. Too much linoleic acid promotes inflammation-doesn’t it? Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2008;79(3–5):173–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Johnson GH, Fritsche K. Effect of dietary linoleic acid on markers of inflammation in healthy persons: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2012;112:1029–41, 41.e1–15.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Czernichow S, Thomas D, Bruckert E. N-6 fatty acids and cardiovascular health: a review of the evidence for dietary intake recommendations. Br J Nutr. 2010;104:788–96.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Kakutani S, Ishikura Y, Tateishi N, Horikawa C, Tokuda H, Kontani M, Kawashima H, Sakakibara Y, Kiso Y, Shibata H, et al. Supplementation of arachidonic acid-enriched oil increases arachidonic acid contents in plasma phospholipids, but does not increase their metabolites and clinical parameters in Japanese healthy elderly individuals: a randomized controlled study. Lipids Health Dis. 2011;10:241.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Rett BS, Whelan J. Increasing dietary linoleic acid does not increase tissue arachidonic acid content in adults consuming Western-type diets: a systematic review. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2011;8:36.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Harris WS, von Schacky C, Park Y. Standardizing methods for assessing omega-3 fatty acid biostatus. In: McNamara RK, editor. The omega-3 fatty acid deficiency syndrome: opportunities for disease prevention. Hauppauge: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Harris WS, von Schacky C. The omega-3 index: a new risk factor for death from coronary heart disease? Prev Med. 2004;39:212–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Harris WS, Sands SA, Windsor SL, Ali HA, Stevens TL, Magalski A, Porter CB, Borkon AM. Omega-3 fatty acids in cardiac biopsies from heart transplant patients: correlation with erythrocytes and response to supplementation. Circulation. 2004;110:1645–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Harris WS, Thomas RM. Biological variability of blood omega-3 biomarkers. Clin Biochem. 2010;43:338–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Harris WS, Varvel SA, Pottala JV, Warnick GR, McConnell JP. Comparative effects of an acute dose of fish oil on omega-3 fatty acid levels in red blood cells versus plasma: implications for clinical utility. J Clin Lipidol. 2013;7:433–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Pottala JV, Garg S, Cohen BE, Whooley MA, Harris WS. Blood eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids predict all-cause mortality in patients with stable coronary heart disease: the Heart and Soul Study. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2010;3:406–12.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Shearer GC, Pottala JV, Spertus JA, Harris WS. Red blood cell fatty acid patterns and acute coronary syndrome. PLoS One. 2009;4:e5444.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Harris WS. The omega-3 index: clinical utility for therapeutic intervention. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2010;12:503–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Harris WS. The omega-3 index: from biomarker to risk marker to risk factor. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2009;11:411–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Block RC, Harris WS, Reid KJ, Sands SA, Spertus JA. EPA and DHA in blood cell membranes from acute coronary syndrome patients and controls. Atherosclerosis. 2007;197:821–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Farzaneh-Far R, Lin J, Epel ES, Harris WS, Blackburn EH, Whooley MA. Association of marine omega-3 fatty acid levels with telomeric aging in patients with coronary heart disease. JAMA. 2010;303:250–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Johnston DT, Deuster PA, Harris WS, Macrae H, Dretsch MN. Red blood cell omega-3 fatty acid levels and neurocognitive performance in deployed U.S. Servicemembers. Nutr Neurosci. 2013;16:30–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Tan ZS, Harris WS, Beiser AS, Au R, Himali JJ, Debette S, Pikula A, Decarli C, Wolf PA, Vasan RS, et al. Red blood cell omega-3 fatty acid levels and markers of accelerated brain aging. Neurology. 2012;78:658–64.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Farzaneh-Far R, Harris WS, Garg S, Na B, Whooley MA. Inverse association of erythrocyte n-3 fatty acid levels with inflammatory biomarkers in patients with stable coronary artery disease: the Heart and Soul Study. Atherosclerosis. 2009;205:538–43.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. von Schacky C. Use of red cell fatty acid profiles as biomarkers in cardiac disease. Biomark Med. 2009;3:25–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Harris WS, Pottala JV, Lacey SM, Vasan RS, Larson MG, Robins SJ. Clinical correlates and heritability of erythrocyte eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid content in the Framingham Heart Study. Atherosclerosis. 2012;225:425–31.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Harris WS, Pottala JV, Varvel SA, Borowski JJ, Ward JN, McConnell JP. Erythrocyte omega-3 fatty acids increase and linoleic acid decreases with age: observations from 160,000 patients. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2013;88:257–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Flock MR, Skulas-Ray AC, Harris WS, Gaugler TL, Fleming JA, Kris-Etherton PM. Effects of supplemental long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and erythrocyte membrane fatty acid content on circulating inflammatory markers in a randomized controlled trial of healthy adults. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2014;91(4):161–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Superko HR, Superko SM, Nasir K, Agatston A, Garrett BC. Omega-3 fatty acid blood levels: clinical significance and controversy. Circulation. 2013;128:2154–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. USDA Agricultural Research Center, Nutrient Data Laboratory. 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Burr ML, Fehily AM, Gilbert JF, Rogers S, Holliday RM, Sweetnam PM, Elwood PC, Deadman NM. Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: diet and reinfarction trial (DART). Lancet. 1989;2:757–61.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Marchioli R, Barzi F, Bomba E, Chieffo C, Di Gregorio D, Di Mascio R, Franzosi MG, Geraci E, Levantesi G, Maggioni AP, et al. Early protection against sudden death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after myocardial infarction: time-course analysis of the results of the Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto Miocardico (GISSI)-Prevenzione. Circulation. 2002;105:1897–903.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Burr ML, Ashfield-Watt PA, Dunstan FD, Fehily AM, Breay P, Ashton T, Zotos PC, Haboubi NA, Elwood PC. Lack of benefit of dietary advice to men with angina: results of a controlled trial. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57:193–200.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Investigators G-H. Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with chronic heart failure (the GISSI-HF trial): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2008;372:1223–30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Rauch B, Schiele R, Schneider S, Diller F, Victor N, Gohlke H, Gottwik M, Steinbeck G, Del CU, Sack R, et al. Omega, a randomized, placebo-controlled trial to test the effect of highly purified omega-3 fatty acids on top of modern guideline-adjusted therapy after myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2010;122:2152–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Kromhout D, Giltay EJ, Geleijnse JM. N-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular events after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2015–26.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Galan P, Kesse-Guyot E, Czernichow S, Briancon S, Blacher J, Hercberg S. Effects of B vitamins and omega 3 fatty acids on cardiovascular diseases: a randomised placebo controlled trial. BMJ. 2010;341:c6273.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  96. ORIGIN Trial Investigators, Bosch J, Gerstein HC, Dagenais GR, Díaz R, Dyal L, Jung H, Maggiono AP, Probstfield J, Ramachandran A, Riddle MC, Rydén LE, Yusuf S. N-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with dysglycemia. N Engl J Med. 2012;367(4):309–18.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Roncaglioni MC, Tombesi M, Silletta MG. N-3 fatty acids in patients with cardiac risk factors. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:781–2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Wachira JK, Larson MK, Harris WS. N-3 fatty acids affect haemostasis but do not increase the risk of bleeding: clinical observations and mechanistic insights. Br J Nutr. 2014;111:1652–62.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Harris WS, Shearer GC. Omega-6 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: friend or foe? Circulation. 2014;130(18):1562–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

Conflict of Interest Statement

William S. Harris, PhD, is the owner of OmegaQuant Analytics, LLC.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Internal Medicine, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, Sioux Falls, SD, USA

    William S. Harris Ph.D.

  2. OmegaQuant Analytics, LLC, 5009 W. 12th Street, Ste 8, Sioux Falls, SD, 57106, USA

    William S. Harris Ph.D.

Authors
  1. William S. Harris Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to William S. Harris Ph.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Consultants in Consumer Healthcare, Morristown, New Jersey, USA

    Adrianne Bendich

  2. Columbia University Inst. Human Nutrition, New York, New York, USA

    Richard J. Deckelbaum

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Harris, W.S. (2015). n-3 and n-6 Fatty Acids Reduce Risk for Cardiovascular Disease. In: Bendich, A., Deckelbaum, R. (eds) Preventive Nutrition. Nutrition and Health. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22431-2_14

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22431-2_14

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-22430-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-22431-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation