Abstract
Culture concepts aim at understanding, explaining, anticipating and changing human behavior and interaction in the workplace. But what exactly is behavior? It is perceiving, interpreting, feeling, thinking, deciding and acting. And if we want to change behavior, we have to learn and memorize. We do all that with our brains, and emotions influence the way we do it. All this stands at the heart of neurosciences and has been significantly enlightened over the past decade. Neuroscience is the key to better understand how culture emerges, develops, how it actually works (its mechanisms) and affects our behavior. As we will work out throughout this book: Our brain is the seat of our culture!
The neuroscientific knowledge presented in this chapter is ambitious, but once read, it extremely boosts the understanding of cultural phenomena and human behavior.
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Notes
- 1.
When the term neuroscience is used throughout this book, brain science and emotion research shall be included.
- 2.
The objective of this book is not to study the brain’s anatomy, rather to make familiar with relevant neuroscientific aspects that are of value in the course of acquiring a better understanding of behavior and organizational culture. Therefore, the following enumeration of brain structures is not claimed to be complete.
- 3.
Phylogeny describes the phylogenetic development, whereas the ontogeny describes the individual development from the egg cell (i.e. incl. the prenatal development) on. Both terms are used extensively in this part oft the book.
- 4.
Nuclei will be described in more in section “Structure and function of neurons and glial cells” from page 87 on.
- 5.
For example subcortically the so-called tectum and in the cortex the area that is called visual cortex.
- 6.
Details in section “The visual system” (pp. 118 ff.).
- 7.
An axon is one part of a neuron. See Fig. 3.6.
- 8.
I.e. via a synaptic connection which is directly on the soma.
- 9.
For more details, see section “Formation and flow of signals in a neuron” (pp. 83 ff.).
- 10.
Actually, the inhibition only reduces the probability that the postsynaptic neuron will fire. But often multiple synapses simultaneously exert a superimposed inhibitory effect, so that the suppression of a signal transmission becomes relatively safe.
- 11.
GABA = Gamma-Aminobutyric-Acid.
- 12.
There are many other substances in the brain, which can act as a neurotransmitter. The ones that are mentioned here are just a selection of particularly oftenly elaborated neurotransmitters.
- 13.
There are also electrical synapses, which aren’t further considered here, because of their low importance.
- 14.
This is true, of course, only with a certain probability, and there are individual differences. In addition, there are e.g. somewhat larger gender related differences. Furthermore, the natural plasticity of the brain is to be mentioned, indicating that our brains “reorganize” itself throughout our entire life. One reason for accelerated reorganization is a lesion or an injury.
- 15.
In this experiment, 100 electrodes in the form of tiny electrodes were implanted into the hippocampus of rats and so it could be determined at what location the neurons fired to what extent.
- 16.
Refers to a small area, where it is assumed.
- 17.
With minor exceptions.
- 18.
Particularly the frontal lobe, which is very essential for conscious perception.
- 19.
There is no definition of exactly which structures are part oft he mesolimbic reward system.
- 20.
Particularly the so-called ventral tegmental area.
- 21.
Particularly into the prefrontal cortex, which is associated with ambitious thinking, action planing or control of behavior.
- 22.
A detailed description oft he underlying processes can be found in section “Wellbeing and euphoria” (p. 95).
- 23.
Vasopressin (also called: antidiuretic hormone, ADH) and oxytocin are mostly called hormone, although they also work as transmitter (e.g. in the amygdala). Therefore they are also referred to as neurohormones.
- 24.
Hormones that are produced in the brain are called neurosteroids (Compagnone and Mellon 2000).
- 25.
I.e. a self-regulated “natural” equilibrium concentration.
- 26.
The effect on pain is intensely investigated. Endorphins inhibit the transmission of pain signals and modulate the psychological assessment of pain.
- 27.
A study of Forsa and the F.A.Z.-Institute for the Techniker-Krankenkasse (one of the biggest German health insurances) was made public on May 14th 2009. It was found that 95 % of housewives and house husbands complained of stress, four out of ten were in constant physical and mental tension. Thus, homemakers were even more heavily fraught than managers (Klusen 2009). According to another survey by the Scientific Institute of the AOK (the biggest German health insurer), the number of stress-related sick leaves has increased ninefold since 2004. In 2010, German employees were absent for nearly 10 million days.
- 28.
From: Personal correspondence with Robert Maurice Sapolsky on the 8th of November 2011.
- 29.
Glucocorticoids can penetrate through biological membranes, i.e. they can pass the blood-brain barrier and get everywhere in the brain, once they are released into the blood circulatory system.
- 30.
The GABAA receptor is a subtype of the GABA receptor. Neurosteroids, and thus glucocorticoids, that bind on GABAA receptors, also cause inhibition or acceleration of the inhibiting effect of GABA. (Pritzel et al. 2009, p. 324)
- 31.
The triggering mechanisms in this regard will be discussed in detail in section “Emotions” on page 126 ff.
- 32.
Through build-back of dentrites and splines or even the death of neurons.
- 33.
In contrast to perception, sensation can be seen as an immediate “first”, kind of physiological, response to sensory stimuli and is therefore upstream of the actual perception. Although the exact meaning of the term “sensation” is controversially discussed, this understanding is the most commonly used in the field of neuroscience.
- 34.
This can be conceived as sort of pattern recognition, in which the sensory input is scanned for potential threats, for example. This refers to positive and negative aspects of life, and it includes obvious, as well as rather subtle aspects of a situation.
- 35.
Some nerve fibers from the eye also get to other thalamic nuclei, e.g. to be linked to information from the vestibular (balance) system. This allows us, inter alia, to reconcile eye and head movement in order to fix a moving object. Our eye movement depends more on the expected motion of an object than on the actual neural stimulus (position). This requires a calculation, which considers the current movement of the object, and the experience over previous motion changes. Eye movement is made up of jerky movements called saccades and smooth eye movements that are unconsciously performed.
- 36.
The suprachiasmatic nucleus, which is a nucleus of the hypothalamus.
- 37.
From the retina on, information of shape, color or motion are processed separately and each stimulate specialized neurons in the primary visual cortex. Information about the form reach the temporal lobe, associated with the “what”-seeing. Color information reach another region within the primary visual cortex, and motion information reach the parietal lobe, associated with the “where”-seeing. These findings are proven by a large number of lesion and functional imaging studies. Fujita et al. (1992) have shown that neurons of the temporal lobe (“what”-seeing) are particularly responsive to distinctive shapes (triangular, star-shaped or angular figures). Sams et al. (1997) showed that other neurons of the temporal lobe are particularly responsive to faces. There are blocks of neurons in the temporal lobe, in which neurons are grouped in columns that are particularly responsive to certain gestalt components. We experience, learn and thereby can specialize neurons. Specialized neurons explain why the trained eye of an expert recognizes more and more differentiated, for example, if a jeweler looks at a diamond or an experienced diver finding an octopus on the seabed.
- 38.
So if a red car approaches us, we hear the engine. Now the shape and color perception is recognized as belonging to the auditory perception, so that we can better decide, whether the car is accelerating or decelerating. We form expectations and calculate, how fast we should move off the road to the curb. Our own experience with the seen objects are mediated via links to structures of the limbic system. Thus, information about the emotional meaning of colors or “fast red” cars are often amended unconsciously. (Pritzel et al. 2009, pp. 180–181).
- 39.
This is a result of afferences from various other cortical areas that continuously act back on nuclei, which are involved in the emotional evaluation of a situation, and thereby e.g. increase the hormone secretion. This in turn modulates the neural processing of visual stimuli, including their combination with other information. This is called the “self-reinforcement of the visual system”. Besides this effect chain, there are many other “manipulative” processes and all of them affect in parallel.
- 40.
This time difference and its consequences will be detailed in section “Emotions” in the brain from page 132.
- 41.
This aspect will be described in section “Memory and learning” (pp. 147 ff.).
- 42.
See footnote 35.
- 43.
Stimulating the raphe nuclei leads to inhibition of the thalamus, the “gateway to the cortex”, i.e. to conscious assessment and action planning.
- 44.
For unconscious olfactory sensations the human brain even has a separate “channel”—the so-called vomeronasal organ (also called Jacobson’s organ), through which unconscious responses to fragrances are mediated. The “main conscious path” for olfactory information to the brain is over the olfactory bulb (a protuberance in the brain).
- 45.
The answer to the question, what an emotion exactly is and who or what has determined that we have developed something like emotions, has a similar character as the philosophical question of what exactly the will is or whether there is a soul (and if yes, what it is). All these questions touch the boundary of the undefinable or are e.g. subject of the long lasting so-called mind-body problem, which will probably last a few more days.
- 46.
For example, the emotion researchers Carroll E. Izard tried to consolidate the various positions and therefore interviewed 35 renowned emotion researchers. The result was published in the October 2010 issue of the journal Emotion Review and sparked a wave of indignation. Nevertheless, there were some convergencies, too (Izard 2010; Widen and Russell 2010).
- 47.
The postulates of the emotion researcher Paul Ekman are cited particularly often. He assumes that humans inherit a small number of universal emotions: joy/happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust and surprise (Ekman and Friesen 1984).
- 48.
Do you remember. In section “Endocrine system (hormone system)” as of page 104, we found that we are able to produce our own “drugs” (e.g. opioids). That gives the whole thing a neurobiological foundation.
- 49.
Anticipation, by using already existing memory content via the hippocampus.
- 50.
For example, it could be shown that the nucleus accumbens, besides mediating simple reward effects, is also involved in the conditioning of emotional stimuli. In addition, it is instrumental in the motivation to wait for a later and larger reward, instead of immediately grasping an immediate but lower reward (Cardinal et al. 2002).
- 51.
The nucleus accumbens has only indirect projections to the brainstem.
- 52.
Autonomic (alos: vegetative) functions include, i.a. heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, digestion of metabolosm.
- 53.
In section “Memory and learning” as of pp. 147 ff.
- 54.
Although LeDoux oftenly speaks of emotions in general, his work is pretty much focused on fear and the amygdala.
- 55.
Increased hormone secretion, widened blood vessels, increased heart rate, etc. This brings about a condition, in which motor “commands” may be executed more effectively.
- 56.
The seven basic emotions according to Panksepp are seeking, rage, fear, lust, care, panic/grief, play.
- 57.
Including sensory inputs, memory contents and bodily/physiologic feedbacks.
- 58.
There are many studies and lots of evidence that physiological and cognitive changes can occur both at the same time and consecutively (bidirectionally). Thus, purely physiological changes, such as pressing laughter muscles can cause the emotion “joy”. Similarly, pressing those parts of the facial muscles that create an angry facial expression, can cause “anger” (Ekman 1992; Strack et al. 1988).
- 59.
This is well to understand with reference to emotion-related neuroendocrine processes, because newly released neuroactive substances build on an already elevated level.
- 60.
The emotion gradient is also imaginable as a kind of temperament or sensitiveness.
- 61.
Biological vitality, mobilization of body functions, including neuronal excitability and conductivity, the presence or production of neuroactive substances.
- 62.
Neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, hormones, peptides, opioids etc.
- 63.
As synonym for an emotionally loaded neural representation or “trace”. In this context the term “instinctive” is used.
- 64.
Please also refer to the explanations in section “Memory and learning” (p. 147) and particularly the excursion on page 160.
- 65.
Attentional deployment is actually a kind of “internal” version of situation selection. Turning attention on or away from stimuli, which are associated with a particular emotional experience.
- 66.
Reductions happen in various consciously and unconsciously manners. Examples include attitude changes, prevarication, cognitive construeing, justifying or mediating stories, but also the search for majorities (Watzlawick, 2010 [1976]).
- 67.
Panksepp (1998), for example, calls the inborn part “basal emotions”.
- 68.
Edgar H. Schein (2004) concept of culture, for example, focuses particularly on deep rooted and subtly operating basic assumptions, which he describes as the very essence of culture. According to him, there is no alternative to behave in line with them, simply because no alternative is visible to members of a culture. Reflecting a challenging situation and re-assessing it is just not foreseen. That’s why the whole concept focuses far too much on the “automatic” part of culture. Schein’s concept can therefore be almost completely assigned to the range of the initial appraisal.
- 69.
Information and notions or memory contents that cover as many as possible aspects of the situation, various perspectives on the situation and thereby allow a reflection against more advanced or “higher” attitudes and lifestyles.
- 70.
I.e., the rethinking of an event in a state, where an individual can largely benefit from his or her mental capacity, because it is not impaired and distorted by hormonal processes.
- 71.
There is no relevant reference to emotions in Schein’s concept of culture, for example.
- 72.
Mood, emotions, health, sympathy, events earlier in the day, historic events, obvious and hidden conflicts of interest, micropolitics, preserving face, prestige, self-esteem or courtship behavior represent only a small sample selection of factors which exert a situational effect. But also the situational constellation of stable characteristics such as personality, intro-/extraversion, shame or shyness plays an important role.
- 73.
It depends on the level that a person can stand or has learned to stand in a specific context—which again leads us to the subject of culture.
- 74.
In this context, it is often said “manipulated”, rather than “processed”.
- 75.
“Loop”, because the phonological memory traces have to be “kept alive”, otherwise they would fade and get lost after about 1-2 s.
- 76.
Small fictuous “man”.
- 77.
Studies with subjects, who have a lesion in their brain—here, in the area of the prefrontal cortex.
- 78.
Neurobiologists found that very intense emotions cause the release of glutamate and noradrenaline, which activate a particular enzyme and in combination with this enzyme, strongly change synaptic connections. The result is a very strong and stable synaptic connection. (Upadhya et al. 2009)
- 79.
That explains, why early learned contents retain the longest (Ribot’s Law). In other words: The young brain has yet to form many neural links/synapses (by contextualization) and that increases the probability to remember it.
- 80.
The hippocampal formation includes the hippocampus and surrounding cortical areas of the temporal lobe. The amygdala is sort of an appendix or the tail end of the hippocampus—a kind of extension of the hippocampus.
- 81.
The brain needs at least 300 ms to mentally switch from one “task” to another. However, a “task” and “attention” can not be equated.
- 82.
Attention can be detected and measured via so-called gamma waves in the EEG (Electroencephalography). When we are relaxed the EEG detects lower frequency alpha waves.
- 83.
Habituation describes the following: Many recurrences without (an unexpected) consequence, cause an adaptation of the responsiveness of the respective neurons (Gluck et al. 2010, p. 227f).
- 84.
A similar mechanism was discussed in the field of emotion regulation: the situation selection.
- 85.
In addition to the reward system, increased activity in the frontal lobe (prefrontal cortex and inferior frontal gyrus) and reduced activity in limbic structures is detected. An identical pattern of neural activity can be observed when an attractive article is accepted for purchase.
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Reisyan, G.D. (2016). Brain Science and Emotion Research. In: Neuro-Organizational Culture. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22147-2_3
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