Abstract
The High North is currently one of the key areas on a global scale whose importance for Europe cannot be overestimated. It also concerns the regions of the USA and Canada (which are sometimes referred to as Far North), but in the European context—which is the subject matter of this work—it encompasses both a part of the continent, and the islands as well as the seas (the Barents Sea, the Greenland Sea) situated beyond the polar circle. In the era of high prices of energy resources and climate warming, the region is characterized by a high level of activity and also a certain nervousness of the states of that region, both of which influence international relations on a scale going beyond the interests of our hemisphere only. In practice, that involves a clear orientation of interests, and not political rhetoric only, the more so as the region truly possesses a high potential allowing for economic growth in at least a few sectors.
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- 1.
L.C. Jensen and G. Hønneland write: “The phrase (High North) was introduced as the English equivalent of the Norwegian term nordområdene (the northern areas) in the mid-1980s, eventually becoming adopted by the Norwegian authorities at the beginning of the current century. The concept has no immediate corresponding counterpart in academic or political discourse outside Norway, and it is not self-explanatory to foreigners” (Jensen and Hønneland 2011).
- 2.
Geopolitics in the High North, Multiple Actors. Norwegian Interest. A five-year (2008–2012) research programme financed through the Norwegian Research Council and conducted by the Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies with partners and associates.
- 3.
- 4.
More on the subject in Chap. 5.
- 5.
See www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/pdf/GarcinE_F.pdf. Retrieved May 10, 2011.
- 6.
See Chap. 5.
- 7.
See Footnote 6.
- 8.
The Arctic Governance Project (AGP) is an unofficial initiative supported by a group of private funders, and intended to bring together preeminent researchers, members of the policy community, and representatives of indigenous peoples in the interests of exploring ways to achieve a sustainable and just future for the Arctic. The term “we” in this report refers to the members of the AGP’s Steering Committee and the Executive Secretary. Committee members include: Hans Corell, Robert Corell, Udloriak Hanson, Paula Kankaanpää, Jacqueline McGlade, Tony Penikett, Stanley Senner, Nodari Simoniya, and Oran Young. The Executive Secretary is Else Grete Broderstad, at the Centre for Sami Studies, University of Tromsø. The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment serves as the fiscal agent for the project.
- 9.
AMAP is a working group of the Arctic Council.
- 10.
- 11.
On November 25, 2008, voters in Greenland approved a referendum for greater autonomy that some observers view as a step towards eventual independence from Denmark.
- 12.
For more on the Arctic Council, see http://www.arctic-council.org.
- 13.
See O’Rourke (2012).
- 14.
- 15.
In this case, the Arctic encompasses ca. 26.5 million km2.
- 16.
Nordenskiöld, Adolf Erik (1832–1901), baron, Swedish researcher and explorer who, among others, led the Arctic expeditions on Spitsbergen in the years 1864–1873. See Uppslagsbook and Södertälje (1985, p. 910).
- 17.
For more on the subject see Lomczewski et al. (1979).
- 18.
See Killaby (2005–2006).
- 19.
More on the subject in ICARP II—SCIENCE PLAN 7, TERRESTRIAL CRYOSPHERIC & HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES AND SYSTEMS, Second International Conference on Arctic Research Planning (ICARP II), Copenhagen, Denmark, 10–12 November 2005, www.icarp.dk.
- 20.
The process of its formation differs from the freezing of freshwater. The minerals existing in sea water lower the freezing temperature to ca. −1.8 °C. The higher the salinity is, the lower the freezing temperature.
- 21.
- 22.
The most important single fish species is the polar cod (20 cm), and it is the only one that occurs in large quantities beneath the ice pack. It is the primary prey for nearly all seabirds, seals, belugas and narwhal whales. Polar cod has physiological adaptation to life in low temperatures.
- 23.
There is commercial fishing of halibut, redfish, cods, mackerels. Some of those species arrived in the Arctic only due to the warming of the area.
- 24.
Willem Barents (actually Barentzoon), ca. 1550–1597, a Dutch navigator, cartographer and explorer; while searching for the Northeast Passage took part in three expeditions. In 1596, he discovered Spitsbergen and the Bear Island; see Upplagsbook, Södertälje 1985, p. 97.
- 25.
Earlier, those attempts were made by Russian Baron Ferdinand Friedrich Georg Ludwig von Wrangel and Pyotr Fyodorovich Anjou (1820), as well as George W. De Long, an American explorer, in 1879.
- 26.
Roald Engelbregt Gravning Amundsen (1872–1928) was a Norwegian explorer of polar regions. He was the first expedition leader to (undisputedly) reach the North Pole (December 14, 1911). He disappeared in the Arctic in June 1928 while taking part in a rescue mission. See Upplagsbook, Södertälje (1985, p. 38).
- 27.
While attempting to navigate the passage, several new discoveries were made: Sir John Ross reached Smith Sound and Lancaster Sound (1818–1819); W. E. Parry discovered Barrow Strait, Melville Island (Northwest Territories and Nunavut), and Melville and Banks islands (1819–1820); J. Franklin charted the north coast of America from the eastern side (1819–1822), and in the years 1845–1847 disappeared on his last expedition, attempting to chart and navigate a section of the Northwest Passage in the Canadian Arctic.
- 28.
Parry, Sir William Edward (1790–1855), officer of the British Navy, attempted four expeditions searching for the Northwest Passage in the years 1819–1827. See Upplagsbook, Södertälje (1985, p. 968).
- 29.
Ross, Sir James Clark (1800–1862), British polar researcher.
- 30.
Nansen Fridtjöf (1861–1930), Norwegian polar explorer, naturalist, oceanographer, social and political activist, representative of Norway in the League of Nations. He was the first one to traverse Greenland from east to west in 1888; in 1893–1895, he commanded an expedition to the North Pole; winner of the Nobel Peace Prize.
- 31.
Vilkitsky Boris A. (1885–1961), Russian hydrographer and surveyor; he was the first one to sail the Northeast Passage from east to west; since 1920 remained in exile.
- 32.
Stefánsson Vilhjálmur (1879–1962), Canadian polar explorer known for his ethnographic expeditions.
- 33.
Jan Nagórski, (1888–1976), Polish pilot of the Imperial Russian Navy. In 1914, taking part in a Russian polar expedition, on a “Farman” class hydroplane, he was the first in the world to fly a plane in the polar region. It is worth-adding that in the 19th century several thousand Poles were sent to the High North as exiles after consecutive Polish risings against Russia. Many of them became researchers and the people like Dybowski, Czerski, and Czekanowski became known in world science.
- 34.
In 1992, “The Oden,” a large Swedish icebreaker, was the first non-nuclear surface vessel to reach the North Pole.
- 35.
The founder of the Hornsund Station, geologist Professor Stanisław Siedlecki (1912–2002) devoted his whole life to the Arctic research. His scientific career began in 1932 with an expedition to Bear Island.
- 36.
Research at the Hornsund Polish Polar Station in Spitsbergen has been done with the participation of the following foreign partners: Arctic Center, University of Lapland in Rovaniemi, Finland—geophysical investigations of glaciers and snow structure in Spitsbergen at the Hornsund area; Departamento de Matematica Aplicada ETSI de Telecomunication, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid Ciudad Universitaria, (Spain)—cooperation in radar surveys and their application in modelling of structure of the processes occurring within the glaciers of Svalbard; Department of Geosciences and Geography, University of Helsinki—joint research on sedimentation in young glacial sea basins such as Brepollen in Hornsund; Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences—studies of the glaciers and snow covers dynamics in Arctic and in Russian mountain region; Geodetic and Geophysical Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Science, Sopron, Hungary—long-term variations in the Schumann resonance parameters in Polish Polar Station at Spitsbergen and Central Europe (in the years 2008–2011, on the basis of the agreement on scientific co-operation between the Polish Academy of Sciences—PAS) and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences—HAS); the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Rock Structure and Mechanics of the ASCR—joint research on isostatics and shifting of orogeny rock mass resulting from the changes in the polar ice caps in the region of southern Spitsbergen; Laboratoire Physique des Radiations, Faculty of Science, Technology and Communication University of Luxembourg, Campus Limpertsberg—joint isotopic analyses of the Hornsund region waters; Laboratrorie de Planetologie du Grenoble, Francja—joint research on auroral phenomena; Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo (Norway) –recording meteorological observations from the Hornsund Stattion and transmitting SYNOP messages to the center in Oslo; Norwegian Institute for Air Research NILU, Keller (Norway)—carrying out the tasks of the program AMAP; National Antarctic Center Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia)—joint biological research; The University Center in Svalbard (UNIS) Longyearbyen (Norway)—cooperation in lake-sediment studies to reconstruct environmental changes occurring in the region of the polar station; University of Oslo, Faculty of Geoscience, Oslo (Norway)—application of geophysical methods in examining glaciers.
The following Polish scientific entities participated in the research programs in 2011: the Maritime University of Gdynia—1 team (research on climatology); Space Research Centre—1 team (ionosphere research); the Institute of Geophysics of the Polish Academy of Science in Warsaw (IGF PAN)—3 teams (glaciology, geophysical processes and phenomena and atmospheric physics); The Institute of Oceanology of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IO PAN)—2 teams (oceanography and marine ecology); the Institute of Nature Conservation PAS in Krakow– 1 team (biology); the University of Gdańsk—1 team (ornithology); Jagiellonian University in Krakow—1 team (geomorphology); the Maria Curie Skłodowska University UMCS in Lublin—1 team (geomorphology); the University of Silesia in Katowice—3 teams (glaciology, climatology and hydrology); the University of Wrocław—3 teams (climatology, botany and geomorphology); the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn—1 team (biology).
- 37.
In 2009, the European Commission launched the project called “Pergamon” whose aim is to coordinate the European research to quantify the methane input from marine and terrestrial sources into the atmosphere in the Arctic region and ultimately to evaluate the impact of Arctic methane seepage on the global climate. Poland in the Pergamon is represented by Prof. M. Lewandowski (Director of the Institute of Geological Sciences PAN) and Prof. J. Piskozub (Head of the Air-Sea Interaction Laboratory of the Institute of Oceanology PAN).
- 38.
More on the subject in Indigenous Arctic Peoples, Chap. 4.
- 39.
More on the subject: www.ipy.org. See also Kaiser (2010).
- 40.
More on the subject at: www.ipy.org.
- 41.
It mainly concerned long-range bombers capable of carrying nuclear weapons, the development of offensive ballistic missiles, and nuclear-powered submarines sailing under the ice of the Arctic Ocean. See Young (1985) and following.
- 42.
- 43.
In the case of crude oil, the majority of imports come currently from the Middle East and Africa.
- 44.
More on the subject in Kubiak (2009).
- 45.
More on the subject in Sakhuja, V. China: Breaking into the Arctic Ice. Retrieved October 10, 2012 from http://www.icwa.in/pdfs/ib%20%20dr.pdf.
- 46.
In 1995, a group of Chinese scientists and journalists travelled to the North Pole on foot and conducted research on the Arctic Ocean’s ice cover, climate and environment.
- 47.
More on the subject in The statement made by the Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Jonas Gahr Støre, in China at China Institute for International Studies, Beijing, 30 Aug. 2010. Retrieved November 25, 2010 from http://www.regjeringen.no/eu/dep/ud/whats-newspeeches/-and-articles/speechesforeign/2010/arctic_vierijing/html?id=613162.
- 48.
Research Vessel “Xuelong” (Snow Dragon) was purchased from Ukraine in 1993. In October 2009 the State Council (the Chinese Cabinet) decided that “Xuelong” alone no longer met the demand of the country’s expanding polar research. The government approved the building of a new high-tech polar expedition research icebreaker, which is to be launched in 2014; more on the subject in China’s 1st icebreaker to be completed in 2013. Retrieved May 03, 2012 from http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2011-10/25/content_13976000.htm; Lasserre, F. China and the Arctic: Threat of Cooperation Potential for Canada? Retrieved June 05, 2011 from http://www.opencanada.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/China-and-the-Arctic-Frederic-Lasserre.pdf; and Viglundson, J., Doyle, A. First Chinese ship crosses Arctic Ocean amid record melt. Retrieved October 25, 2012 from http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/08/17/us-china-environment-idUKBRE87G0P820120817.
- 49.
Iceland is often described as an ideal transport hub for Arctic shipping considerations, being perfectly located between Northern Europe and the East Coast of North America. This country can be, for example, a good place for transshipment and reloading on the new northern shipping routes.
- 50.
More on the subject in Chap. 5.
- 51.
Two months earlier, during the visit of the Chinese Prime Minister, Denmark agreed to support the Chinese bid to gain the permanent observer status in the Arctic Council.
- 52.
Following the contracts awarded to Danish companies in China, worth as much as 3 billion USD, for example Carlsberg will build breweries in the “Center of the World,” and the concern Maersk will develop one of the sea ports there.
- 53.
More on the subject in Kubiak (2009).
- 54.
See Hidehisa Horinouchi (Deputy Director-General, International Legal Affairs Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan). Japan and the Arctic. At the Japan-Norway Polar Seminar, Monday, 26 April 2010, own archive.
- 55.
Japan is one the 13 countries that have their own permanent research stations there.
- 56.
Compare: Written Statement by the Delegation of Japan at the Second Meeting of Deputy Ministers of the Arctic Council 15 May 2012 Stockholm. At http://www.arctic-council.org/.../118-deputy-ministers-meeting-Stockholm-15-may-2012?...Japan. Retrieved January 11, 2013 from http://www.jcar.org.
- 57.
More on the subject in Seon-hee Eom (2011).
- 58.
South Korean President Lee Myung-bak paid a visit to Greenland in 2012 without going to Denmark first and without the presence of the Danish Prime Minister who is responsible for the foreign policy and Denmark’s security. This nearly gave Greenland the status of an independent state. More on the subject in South Korean President Lee Myung-Bak in Ilulissat. Greenland Today, September 10, 2012.
- 59.
Several agreements were also contracted, among others, state-owned Korea Resources Corporation (KORES) has agreed to work with Greenland mining firm NunaMinerals to seek opportunities for joint minerals projects, exploiting deposits of rare earths and other strategic metals. More on the subject at: http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/09/10/greenland-korea-minerals-idINL5E8KAAKP20120910. Retrieved September 15, 2012.
- 60.
See President Lee steps into the Arctic Circle for South Korea’s Arctic initiative, http://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/Policies/view?articleId=102568. Retrieved October 24, 2012.
- 61.
In July 2012, industry experts and government officials from Norway and South Korea met to discuss the prospects of global warming creating a sea passage across the North Pole. And the benefits are clear. The distance between ports in Western Europe and those in Japan, China and Korea is 40 % shorter through the Northern Sea Route than the typical route through the Suez Canal and the Mediterranean. However, while Korea on the one hand is pursuing the business opportunities resulting from the effects of climate change, there continues to be a strong political will on the Korean Peninsula to take action against the causes of climate change. In early 2012, Korea approved an emission trading plan that will be implemented in 2015. In July 2012, Korea announced a new program intended to develop a satellite for monitoring climate change and air pollution in Northeast Asia. See the statement made by Hong Yoo-deok (Director of Climate and Environment Research Institute) who said: “If the satellite finds the exact origin and the path of pollutants from China, we can mitigate the damage to our forests and agriculture,” adding that such data could also be used for demanding compensation from China; quoted after Peter Bjerregaard, The Arctic passes climate threshold, June, 2012, www.norden.org., p. 3. Retrieved August 29, 2012.
- 62.
See more on the subject in Korea, Norway agrees on partnership for environment-friendly Arctic development. http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2012/10/120_119777.html (retrieved October 21, 2012) and http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/national/2012/09/12/57/0301000000AEN20120912008951315F.HTML (retrieved September 21, 2012).
- 63.
More on the subject in http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/business/2012/05/15/64/0501000000AEN20120515002800320F.HTML. Retrieved July 17, 2012.
- 64.
See more on the subject in Mitra (2012).
- 65.
The author, to prove her theses, lists the following sources: http://polish.ruvr.ru/2012_05_29/76362407/ (retrieved November 12, 2012); Official visit of Prime Minister to the Russian Federation, at: http://www.indianembassy.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=797%3Apress-release&catid=53%3Avisits&Itemid=625&lang=en (retrieved November 02, 2012); Major deals between India and Russia, New Delhi, December 22, 2010, at: http://www.rusembassy.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2122&Itemid=102&lang=en (retrieved November 02, 2012); Cabinet okays merger of ONGC's Russia assets with Sistema firms, at: http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-06-20/news/29679979_1_russneft-imperial-energy-bashneft (retrieved November 02, 2012).
- 66.
More on the subject in Interests and roles of non-Arctic states in the Arctic (2011).
- 67.
It is Michel Rocard, former Prime Minister of the French Republic, appointed to this post (Ambassadeur en charge des négociations internationales sur les régions polaires, l’Arctique et l’Antarctique) in March 2009. See Rocard nommé ambassadeur de France en Arctique. Le Nouvel Observateur, March 18, 2009.
- 68.
French officials have called for the establishment of special environmental zones. These zones shall protect those areas that are particularly vulnerable to human activities. This should include the protection from regular and irregular fishing activities.
- 69.
France is present in Svalbard by virtue of its scientific bases of Charles Rabot and Jean Corbel in the region of Ny-Ålesund, where several research programs are being conducted.
- 70.
See http://www.german-foreign-policy.com/en/fulltext/57888. Retrieved October 25, 2012.
- 71.
This is how the Germans write about the Spitsbergen Treaty: “The Spitsbergen Treaty forms the legally-binding framework for states’ rights and obligations with respect to the Arctic.” Retrieved October 25, 2012 from http://www.german-foreign-policy.com/en/fulltext/57888.
- 72.
See Sect. 2.2. Currently, in the research center Natural Environmental Research Council (NERC) in Ny-Ålesund a 15-million-pound Arctic research-environmental program for the years 2010–2015 is realized. More on the subject in Arctic Research Programme at www.nerc.ac.uk. Retrieved: August 22, 2012.
- 73.
See Minister for International Defence and Security, at the Joint NATO/Icelandic Government conference, Reykjavic, Iceland on 29 January 2009, Ministry of Defence Archives, http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk. Retrieved: July 11, 2012.
- 74.
See also Depledge and Dodds (2011).
- 75.
See also Minister for International Defence and Security 2009.
- 76.
Over two thirds of crude oil imports by Great Britain come from Norway.
- 77.
See the full text of the document.
- 78.
Russia’s Rosneft and America’s ExxonMobil signed documents which laid out the details of the agreements on the strategic co-operation and joint projects of the two companies, signed in January 2011 (on the Russian Black Sea shelf) and in August 2011 (on the Kara Sea in the Arctic). ExxonMobil has given Rosneft participation in its projects in U.S. (30 % in a project involving the extraction of difficult-to-access oil), in the Gulf of Mexico (30 % in the twenty oil fields owned by ExxonMobil) and 30 % in the project covering the extraction of shale oil in the Canadian province of Alberta. The investment is estimated at 200–300 billion USD. The final decisions regarding the investment into Arctic deposits will be made by Exxon and Rosneft on the turn of 2016. If the prices of crude oil fall down significantly, the venture Exxon-Rosneft will pay no taxes at all. As stated by A. Kublik, “Owing to this agreement, Exxon will enlarge its oil deposits in the Arctic which holds some 20–25 % of the world deposits of oil and gas yet unexplored. Moreover, in Russia, the exploitation of Arctic deposits does not meet so many protests by ecologists as in the West.” Kublik, A. Antarktyczna alternatywa. Gazeta Wyborcza, April 21, 2012.
- 79.
See Co Włosi dadzą za Arktykę. Gazeta Wyborcza, April 26, 2012.
- 80.
One should keep in mind that the Italian state-controlled consortium ENI and Enel had a 49 % stake in SeverEnergia while the rest was owned by the company set up by Gazprom Neft with the private gas company Novatek, Russia’s largest independent natural gas producer. .
- 81.
Yukos used to own SeverEnergia. In 2007, the company was sold off at a forced auction the proceeds from which were then used to pay off the settlement for back-tax bills as claimed by the government. As writes A. Kublik (November 24, 2013): “At the liquidation auction, which lasted 10 min, the consortium ENI and Enel purchased the lot which included SeverEnergia and a 20-percent stake in Gazprom Neft. The Italians paid $5.83 billion for the package but almost immediately recovered their investment. Soon after the auction and the formal acquisition of Yukos assets, the Italians sold the 20-percent stake in Gazprom Neft to Gazprom for $3.7 billion. Then, for 1.5 billion Gazprom repurchased from the Italian consortium a 51-percent stake in SeverEnergia which Gazprom later sold to the company in which Novatek had shares.” Retrieved December 01, 2013 from http://wyborcza.biz/biznes/1,100896,15008703,Rosjanie_wykupili_Wlochow_z_arktycznych_zloz.html#ixzz2lgEoBgGX.
- 82.
ENI purchased the Yukos gas assets at auction after it went bankrupt due to the actions by the Kremlin, and then immediately resold the controlling packet of shares to Gazprom, which protected the latter from possible court suits by the shareholders of Yukos.
- 83.
In the presence of Prime Minister of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin (in Sochi, at the International Investment Forum on April 16, 2011), Gazprom, ENI, EDF (French energy company) and Wintershall (German) signed an agreement on construction of the South Stream pipeline, a rival undertaking for the Nabucco gas pipeline. Russians first managed to sign the agreements with Bulgaria, Hungary, Serbia, Austria, Italy and Turkey through whose territorial waters the pipe on the bottom of the Black Sea will go. Then they convinced Italian ENI to diminish their shares and give the difference to the French EDF. In the venture, South Stream Gazprom owns 50 % of shares, Eni 20 %, EDF and Wintershall 15 % each. Gazprom estimates the investment at EUR 15.5 billion. The first leg of the pipeline (16 bcm3 annually) from Russia to Bulgaria under the Black Sea, the Balkans, Italy and Austria will be ready by 2015. By the end of 2018, the South Stream Offshore Pipeline will allow 63 bcm of natural gas to be transported to European markets every year. See Rzeczpospolita, September 17–18, 2011.
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Czarny, R.M. (2015). The High North. In: The High North. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21662-1_2
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