Abstract
In this chapter, we discuss key aspects of assessing the quality of forensic interviews conducted with childwitnesses. We begin by discussing the quality of the case material, before reviewing the key components of investigative interviews and methods of assessing the quality of each of these components. The overall structure of the interview is discussed with reference to the use of “ground rules” and the effectiveness of rapport building and episodic memory training during the presubstantive phase of the interview. Issues surrounding the identification of appropriate and inappropriate questions and prompts are examined in relation to the strengths and weaknesses of memory. Additional issues that can influence the effectiveness of an interview, such as the use of repeated questions, the specific vs. generic nature of accounts, and the use of anatomical dolls, are also considered in light of the impact they may have on children’s responses.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Ahern, E. C., Lyon, T. D., & Quas, J. A. (2011). Young children’s emerging ability to make false statements. Developmental Psychology, 47, 61–66. doi:10.1037/a0021272.
Almerigogna, J., Ost, J., Bull, R., & Akehurst, L. (2007). A state of high anxiety: How non-supportive interviewers can increase the suggestibility of child witnesses. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 963–974. doi:10.1002/acp.1311.
Anderson, G. D., Anderson, J. N., & Gilgun, J. F. (2014). The influence of narrative practice techniques on child behaviors in forensic interviews. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 23, 615–634. doi:10.1080/105387/12.2014.932878.
Andrews, S. J., & Lamb, M. E. (2014). The effects of age and delay on responses to repeated questions in forensic interviews with children alleging sexual abuse. Law and Human Behavior, 38, 171–180. doi:10.1037/lhb0000064.
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., Howe, M. L., & Kingma, J. (1990). The development of forgetting and reminiscence. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 55, 1–109. doi:10.2307/1166106.
Bridges, A. J., Faust, D., & Ahern, D. C. (2009). Methods for the identification of sexually abused children: Reframing the clinician’s task and recognizing its disparity with research on indicators. In K. Kuehnle & M. Connell (Eds.), The evaluation of child sexual abuse allegations: A comprehensive guide to assessment and testimony (pp. 21–47). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Brock, P., Fisher, R., & Cutler, B. (1999). Examining the cognitive interview in a double-test paradigm. Psychology, Crime & Law, 5, 29–45. doi:10.1080/10683169908414992.
Brubacher, S. P., Malloy, L. C., Lamb, M. E., & Roberts, K. P. (2013). How do interviewers and children discuss individual occurrences of alleged repeated abuse in forensic interviews? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 27, 443–450. doi:10.1002/acp.2920.
Brubacher, S. P., Roberts, K. P., & Powell, M. (2011). Effects of practicing episodic versus scripted recall on children’s subsequent narratives of a repeated event. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 17, 286–314. doi:10.1037/a0022793.
Bruck, M., Ceci, S. J., Francoeur, E., & Renick, A. (1995). Anatomically detailed dolls do not facilitate pre-schoolers’ reports of a paediatric examination involving genital touch. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Applied, 1, 95–109.
Bruck, M., Ceci, S. J., & Hembrooke, H. (1998). Reliability and credibility of young children’s reports: From research to policy and practice. American Psychologist, 53, 136–151. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.136.
Bruck, M., Ceci, S. J., & Hembrooke, H. (2002). The nature of children’s true and false narratives. Developmental Review, 22, 520–554. doi:10.1016/S0273-2297(02)00006-0.
Carter, C. A., Bottoms, B. L., & Levine, M. (1996). Linguistic and socioemotional influences on the accuracy of children’s reports. Law and Human Behavior, 20, 335–356. doi:10.1007/BF01499044.
Ceci, S. J., & Bruck, M. (1993). Suggestibility of the child witness: A historical review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 403–439. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.113.3.403.
Ceci, S. J., & Bruck, M. (1995). Jeopardy in the courtroom: A scientific analysis of children’s testimony. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10180-000.
Ceci, S. J., Huffman, M. L. C., Smith, E., & Loftus, E. F. (1994). Repeatedly thinking about a non-event: Source misattributions among preschoolers. Consciousness and Cognition, 3, 388–407. doi:10.1006/ccog.1994.1022.
Ceci, S. J., Kulkofsky, S., Klemfuss, J. Z., Sweeney, C. D., & Bruck, M. (2007). Unwarranted assumptions about children’s testimonial accuracy. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 311–328. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091354.
Ceci, S. J., Loftus, E. F., Leichtman, M. D., & Bruck, M. (1994). The possible role of source misattributions in the creation of false beliefs among preschoolers. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 42, 304–320.
Collins, R., Lincoln, R., & Frank, M. G. (2002). The effect of rapport in forensic interviewing. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 9, 69–78. doi:10.1375/132187102760196916.
Connolly, D. A., & Read, J. D. (2006). Delayed prosecutions of historic child sexual abuse: Analyses of 2064 Canadian criminal complaints. Law and Human Behavior, 30, 409–434. doi:10.1007/s10979-006-9011-6.
Dale, P. S. (1976). Language development: Structure and function. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Davis, S., & Bottoms, B. (2002). Effects of social support on children’s eyewitness reports: A test of the underlying mechanism. Law and Human Behavior, 26, 185–214.
de Villiers, J. G., & de Villiers, P. A. (1999). Language development. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Dent, H. R., & Stephenson, G. M. (1979). An experimental study of the effectiveness of different techniques of questioning child witnesses. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 18, 41–51. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1979.tb00302.x.
Evans, A. D., & Lee, K. (2010). Promising to tell the truth makes 8- to 16-year olds more honest. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 28, 801–811. doi:10.1002/bsl.960.
Evans, A. D., Lee, K., & Lyon, T. D. (2009). Complex questions asked by defense lawyers but not prosecutors predicts convictions in child abuse trials. Law and Human Behavior, 33, 258–264. doi:10.1007/s10979-008-9148-6.
Fivush, R., Peterson, C., & Schwarzmueller, A. (2002). Questions and answers: The credibility of child witnesses in the context of specific questioning techniques. In M. L. Eisen, J. A. Quas, & G. S. Goodman (Eds.), Memory and suggestibility in the forensic interview (pp. 331–354). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Fivush, R., & Schwarzmueller, A. (1995). Say it once again: Effects of repeated questions on children’s event recall. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 555–580.
Friedman, W. J. (1991). The development of children’s memory for the time of past events. Child Development, 62, 139–155. doi:10.2307/1130710.
Friedman, W. J. (1993). Memory for the time of past events. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 44–66. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.113.1.44.
Gee, S., Gregory, M., & Pipe, M. E. (1999). ‘What color is your pet dinosaur?’ The impact of pre-interview training and question type on children’s answer. Legal and Criminal Psychology, 4, 111–128. doi:10.1348/135532599167716.
Gilbert, J. A. E., & Fisher, R. P. (2006). The effects of varied retrieval cues on reminiscence in eyewitness memory. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 723–739. doi:10.1002/acp.1232.
Goodman, G. S., & Aman, C. (1990). Children’s use of anatomically detailed dolls to recount an event. Child Development, 61, 1859–1871. doi:10.2307/1130842.
Goodman, G. S., Bottoms, B. L., Schwartz-Kenney, B. M., & Rudy, L. (1991). Children’s testimony about a stressful event: Improving children’s reports. Journal of Narrative and Life History, 1, 69–99.
Guadagno, B. L., Powell, M. B., & Wright, R. (2006). Police officers’ and legal professionals’ perceptions regarding how children are, and should be, questioned about repeated abuse. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 13, 251–260. doi:10.1375/pplt.13.2.251.
Hershkowitz, I. (2009). Socioemotional factors in child sexual abuse investigations. Child Maltreatment, 14, 172–181. doi:10.1177/1077559508326224.
Hershkowitz, I., Fisher, S., Lamb, M. E., & Horowitz, D. (2007). Improving credibility assessment in child sexual abuse allegations: The role of the NICHD investigative interview protocol. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 99–110. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.09.005.
Hershkowitz, I., Lamb, M. E., Katz, C. & Malloy, L. C. (2013). Does enhanced rapport-building alter the dynamics of investigative interviews with suspected victims of intra-familial abuse? Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 30, 6–14.
Hershkowitz, I., Lamb, M. E., & Katz, C. (2014). Allegation rates in forensic child abuse investigations: Comparing the revised and standard NICHD protocols. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 20, 336–344. doi:10.1037/a0037391.
Hutcheson, G. D., Baxter, J. S., Telfer, K., & Warden, D. (1995). Child witness statement quality: Question type and errors of omission. Law and Human Behavior, 19, 641–648. doi:10.1007/BF01499378.
Jones, D. P., & Krugman, R. D. (1986). Can a three-year-old child bear witness to her sexual assault and attempted murder? Child Abuse & Neglect, 10, 253–258. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(86)90086-4.
Jones, C. H., & Pipe, M.-E. (2002). How quickly do children forget events? A systematic study of children’s event reports as a function of delay. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 16, 755–768. doi:10.1002/acp.826.
Kassin, S. M., Tubb, V. A., Hosch, H. M., & Memon, A. (2001). On the “general acceptance” of eyewitness testimony research: A new survey of the experts. American Psychologist, 56, 405–416. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.5.405.
Krackow, E., & Lynn, S. J. (2010). Event report training: An examination of the efficacy of a new intervention to improve children’s eyewitness reports. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 868–884. doi:10.1002/acp.1594.
La Rooy, D., & Block, S. (2013). The importance of scientifically analysing the quality of joint investigative interviews (JIIs) conducted with children in Scotland. Scots Law Times, 10, 77–78.
La Rooy, D., Pipe, M., & Murray, J. E. (2007). Enhancing children’s event recall after long delays. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 1–17. doi:10.1002/acp.1272.
Lamb, M. E., & Fauchier, A. (2001). The effects of question type on self-contradictions by children in the course of forensic interviews. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15, 483–491. doi:10.1002/acp.726.
Lamb, M. E., Hershkowitz, I., Orbach, Y., & Esplin, P. W. (2008). Tell me what happened: Structured investigative interviews of child victims and witnesses. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. doi:10.1002/9780470773291.
Lamb, M. E., La Rooy, D., Malloy, L. C., & Katz, C. (2011). Children’s testimony: A handbook of psychological research and forensic practice (2nd ed.). Chichester, England: Wiley.
Lamb, M. E., Orbach, Y., Warren, A. R., Esplin, P. W., & Hershkowitz, I. (2007a). Enhancing performance: Factors affecting the informativeness of young witnesses. In M. P. Toglia, J. D. Read, D. F. Ross, & R. C. L. Lindsay (Eds.), The handbook of eyewitness psychology (Memory for events, Vol. 1, pp. 429–451). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Lamb, M. E., Orbach, Y., Hershkowitz, I., Esplin, P. W., & Horowitz, D. (2007b). A structured forensic interview protocol improves the quality and informativeness of investigative interviews with children: A review of research using the NICHD investigative interview protocol. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 1201–1231. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.03.021.
Lamb, M. E., Orbach, Y., Sternberg, K. J., Hershkowitz, I., & Horowitz, D. (2000). Accuracy of investigators’ verbatim notes of their forensic interviews with alleged child abuse victims. Law and Human Behavior, 24, 699–708.
Lamb, M. E., Orbach, Y., Warren, A. R., Esplin, P. W., & Hershkowitz, I. (2007). Enhancing performance: Factors affecting the informativeness of young witnesses. In M. P. Toglia, J. D. Read, D. F. Ross, & R. C. L. Lindsay (Eds.), The handbook of eyewitness psychology (Memory for events, Vol. 1, pp. 429–451). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Lamb, M. E., Sternberg, K. J., Esplin, P. W., Hershkowitz, I., Orbach, Y., & Hovav, M. (1997). Criterion-based content analysis: A field validation study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21, 255–264. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(96)00170-6.
Lamb, M. E., Sternberg, K. J., Orbach, Y., Esplin, P. W., Stewart, H., & Mitchell, S. (2003). Age differences in young children’s responses to open-ended invitations in the course of forensic interviews. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 71, 926–934. doi:10.1037/0022006X.71.5.926.
Lamb, M. E., Sternberg, K. J., & Esplin, P. W. (1998). Conducting investigative interviews of alleged sexual abuse victims. Child Abuse & Neglect, 2, 813–823.
Lyon, T. D. (2010). Investigative interviewing of the child. In D. N. Duquette & A. M. Haralambie (Eds.), Child welfare law and practice (2nd ed., pp. 87–109). Denver, CO: Bradford.
Lyon, T. D., & Dorado, J. S. (2008). Truth induction in young maltreated children: The effects of oath- taking and reassurance on true and false disclosures. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32, 738–748.
Melnyk, L., & Bruck, M. (2004). Timing moderates the effects of repeated suggestive interviewing on children’s eyewitness memory. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 613–631. doi:10.1002/acp.1013.
Melnyk, L., Crossman, A. M., & Scullin, M. H. (2007). The suggestibility of children’s memory. In D. F. Ross, R. C. L. Lindsay, M. P. Toglia, & J. D. Read (Eds.), The handbook of eyewitness psychology (Memory for events, Vol. 1, pp. 401–427). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Oates, K., & Shrimpton, S. (1991). Children’s memories for stressful and non-stressful events. Medical Science and Law, 31, 4–10.
Orbach, Y., Hershkowitz, I., Lamb, M. E., Sternberg, K. J., Esplin, P. W., & Horowitz, D. (2000). Assessing the value of structured protocols for forensic interviews of alleged child abuse victims. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24, 733–752. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00137-X.
Orbach, Y., & Lamb, M. E. (2007). Young children’s references to temporal attributes of allegedly experienced events in the course of forensic interviews. Child Development, 78, 1100–1120. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01055.x.
Peterson, C., Dowden, C., & Tobin, J. (1999). Interviewing preschoolers: Comparisons of yes/no and wh- questions. Law and Human Behavior, 23, 539–555. doi:10.1023/A:102239611219.
Poole, D. A., Bruck, M., & Pipe, M.-E. (2011). Forensic interviewing aids: Do props help children answer questions about touching? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 11–15. doi:10.1177/0963721410388804.
Poole, D. A., & Lamb, M. E. (1998). Investigative interviews of children: A guide for helping professionals. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Poole, D. A., & White, L. T. (1993). Two years later: Effects of question repetition and retention interval on the eyewitness testimony of children and adults. Developmental Psychology, 29, 844–853. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.29.5.844.
Powell, M. B., Roberts, K. P., & Guadagno, B. (2007). Particularisation of child abuse offences: Common problems when interviewing child witnesses. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 19, 64–74.
Price, H. L., Roberts, K. P., & Collins, A. (2013). The quality of children’s allegations of abuse in investigative interviews containing practice narratives. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 2, 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.03.001.
Quas, J. A., & Lench, H. C. (2007). Arousal at encoding, arousal at retrieval, interviewer support, and children’s memory for a mild stressor. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 289–305. doi:10.1002/acp.1279.
Quas, J. A., Malloy, L. C., Melinder, A., Goodman, G. S., D’Mello, M., & Schaaf, J. (2007). Developmental differences in the effects of repeated interviews and interviewer bias on young children’s event memory and false reports. Developmental Psychology, 43, 823–837. doi:10.1037/00121649.43.4.823.
Raskin, D. C., & Esplin, P. W. (1991). Statement validity assessment: Interview procedures and content analysis of children’s statements of sexual abuse. Behavioral Assessment, 13, 265–291.
Roberts, K. P. (2002). Children’s ability to distinguish between memories from multiple sources: Implications for the quality and accuracy of eyewitness statements. Developmental Review, 22, 403–435. doi:10.1016/S0273-2297(02)00005-9.
Roberts, K. P., Brubacher, S. P., Price, H. L., & Powell, M. B. (2011). Practice narratives. In M. E. Lamb, D. La Rooy, C. Katz, & L. Malloy (Eds.), Children’s testimony: A handbook of psychological research and forensic practice (pp. 129–145). West Sussex, England: Wiley-Blackwell.
Roberts, K. P., Lamb, M. E., & Sternberg, K. J. (2004). The effects of rapport building style on children’s reports of a staged event. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 189–202. doi:10.1002/acp.957.
Saywitz, K., Camparo, L. B., & Romanoff, A. (2010). Interviewing children in custody cases: Implications of research and policy practice. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 28, 542–562. doi:10.1002/bsl.945.
Saywitz, K. J., Goodman, G. S., Nicholas, E., & Moan, S. F. (1991). Children’s memories of a physical examination involving genital touch: Implications for reports of child sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 682–691. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.59.5.682.
Saywitz, K. J., & Moan-Hardie, S. (1994). Reducing the potential for distortion of childhood memories. Consciousness & Cognition, 3, 408–425.
Saywitz, K. J., Snyder, L., & Nathanson, R. (1999). Facilitating the communicative competence of the child witness. Applied Developmental Science, 3, 58–68. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0301_7.
Sharman, S. J., Powell, M. B., & Roberts, K. P. (2011). Children’s ability to estimate the frequency of single and repeated events. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 13, 234–242. doi:10.1350/ijps.2011.13.3.243.
Steller, M., & Koehnken, G. (1989). Criteria-based statement analysis. In D. C. Raskin (Ed.), Psychological methods in criminal investigation and evidence (pp. 217–245). New York, NY: Springer.
Sternberg, K. J., Lamb, M. E., Esplin, P. W., Orbach, Y., & Hershkowitz, I. (2002). Using a structured interview protocol to improves the quality of investigative interviews. In M. L. Eisen, J. A. Quas, & G. S. Goodman (Eds.), Memory and suggestibility in the forensic interview (pp. 409–436). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Sternberg, K. J., Lamb, M. E., Esplin, P. W., & Baradaran, L. P. (1999). Using a scripted protocol in investigative interviews: A pilot study. Applied Developmental Science, 3, 70–76. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0302_1.
Sternberg, K. J., Lamb, M. E., Hershkowitz, I., Yudilevitch, L., Orbach, Y., Esplin, P. W., & Hovav, M. (1997). Effects of introductory style on children’s abilities to describe experiences of sexual abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 21, 1133–1146. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00071-9.
Strange, D., Garry, M., & Sutherland, R. (2003). Drawing out children’s false memories. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 607–619. doi:10.1002/acp.911.
Talwar, V., Lee, K., Bala, N., & Lindsay, R. C. L. (2002). Children’s conceptual knowledge of lying and its relation to their actual behaviors: Implications for court competence examinations. Law and Human Behavior, 26, 395–415.
Teoh, Y.-S., & Lamb, M. E. (2010). Preparing children for investigative interviews: Rapport-building, instruction, and evaluation. Applied Developmental Psychology, 14, 154–163. doi:10.1080/10888691.2010.494463.
Vrij, A. (2008). Detecting lies and deceit: Pitfalls and opportunities (2nd ed.). Chichester, England: Wiley.
Walker, A. G., & Kenniston, J. (2013). Handbook on questioning children: A linguistic perspective (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Bar Association.
Wandrey, L., Lyon, T. D., Quas, J. A., & Friedman, W. J. (2012). Maltreated children’s ability to estimate temporal location and numerosity of placement changes and court visits. Psychology, Public Policy & Law, 18, 79–104. doi:10.1037/a0024812.
Warren, A. R., & Woodall, C. E. (1999). The reliability of hearsay testimony: How well do interviewers recall their interviews with children? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 5, 355–371.
Warren, A. R., Woodall, C. E., Hunt, J. S., & Perry, N. W. (1996). “It sounds good in theory, but…” Do investigator interviewers follow guidelines based on memory research? Child Maltreatment, 1, 231–245.
Waterman, A. H., & Blades, M. (2011). Helping children correctly say “I don’t know” to unanswerable questions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 17, 396–405. doi:10.1037/a0026150.
Waterman, A. H., Blades, M., & Spencer, C. (2000). Do children try to answer nonsensical questions? British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18, 211–225. doi:10.1348/026151000165652.
Waterman, A. H., Blades, M., & Spencer, C. (2001). Interviewing children and adults: The effect of question format on the tendency to speculate. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15, 521–531. doi:10.1002/acp.741.
Waterman, A. H., Blades, M., & Spencer, C. (2004). Indicating when you do not know the answer: The effect of question format and interviewer knowledge on children’s ‘don’t know’ responses. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 22, 335–348. doi:10.1348/0261510041552710.
Wood, J. M., McClure, K. A., & Birch, R. A. (1996). Suggestions for improving interviews in child protection agencies. Child Maltreatment, 1, 223–230.
Woolley, J. D., & Ghosaini, M. E. (2013). Revisiting the fantasy–reality distinction: Children as naïve skeptics. Child Development, 84, 1496–1510. doi:10.1111/cdev.12081.
Zajac, R., & Hayne, H. (2003). I don’t think that’s what really happened: The effect of cross-examination on the accuracy of children’s reports. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Applied, 9, 187–195. doi:10.1037/1076-898X.9.3.187.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Earhart, B., La Rooy, D., Lamb, M. (2016). Assessing the Quality of Forensic Interviews with Child Witnesses. In: O'Donohue, W., Fanetti, M. (eds) Forensic Interviews Regarding Child Sexual Abuse. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21097-1_18
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21097-1_18
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-21096-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-21097-1
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)