Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Three Generation Studies: Methodological Challenges and Promise

  • Chapter
Handbook of the Life Course

Part of the book series: Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research ((HSSR))

Abstract

Studies examining various life-course themes are increasingly employing longitudinal studies that contain three adjacent generations from the same families. These studies enable the investigation of continuity and discontinuity in the behavior of interest across the generations, as well as mediating and moderating influences that help explain how the lives of parents and children (and grandchildren) become linked over time. Although these studies are used more frequently now, there is still a lack of agreement about what constitutes a “three generation study.” The present chapter proposes a set of core design features that, in combination, both define three generation studies and distinguish them from traditional longitudinal designs. It then identifies several major methodological challenges that confront three generation studies and discusses potential solutions to them. In keeping with one of the central themes of the Handbook, throughout the chapter I offer suggestions for future research. Finally, the chapter addresses the strengths and weaknesses of this approach and the potential yield that three generation studies offer to the investigation of life-course themes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    There are exceptions to this, for example, intergenerational studies in gerontology, which are discussed below.

  2. 2.

    I would like to thank my colleague Kimberly Henry of Colorado State University for contributing this analysis to the chapter.

  3. 3.

    This can only be investigated for G2 fathers since virtually all G2 mothers, about 95 %, are the child’s primary caregiver.

References

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the child behavior checklist/4-18 and 1991 profile. Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, P. C., Moore, S., & Alexander, E. R., III. (1991). What is transmitted in the intergenerational transmission of violence? Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 657–668.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E. (1990). Streetwise: Race, class, and change in an urban community. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aos, S., Lieb, R., Mayfield, J., Miller, M., & Pennucci, A. (2004). Benefits and costs of prevention and early intervention programs for youth. Olympia: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Auty, K. M., Farrington, D. P., & Coid, J. W. (2014). Intergenerational transmission of psychopathy and mediation via psychosocial risk factors. British Journal of Psychiatry, 206, 26–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. A., Hill, K. G., Oesterle, S., & Hawkins, J. D. (2006). Linking substance use and problem behavior across three generations. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 34, 263–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. A., Hill, K. G., Guttmannova, K., Oesterle, S., Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & McMahon, R. J. (2013). The association between parent early adult drug use disorder and later observed parenting practices and child behavior problems: Testing alternate models. Developmental Psychology, 49, 887–899.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J. (1993). Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental-ecological analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 413–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bengtson, V. L. (1971, 1985, 1988, 1991, 1994, 1997, 2000). Longitudinal study of generations, [California]. ICPSR22100-v2. Ann Arbor: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2009-05-12. http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR22100.v2.

  • Bengtson, V. L. (1996). Continuities and discontinuities in intergenerational relationships over time. In V. L. Bengtson (Ed.), Adulthood and aging: Research on continuities and discontinuities (pp. 271–303). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bengtson, V. L., Biblarz, T. J., & Roberts, R. E. (2002). How families still matter: A longitudinal study of youth in two generations. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Besemer, S., & Farrington, D. P. (2012). Intergenerational transmission of criminal behaviour: Conviction trajectories of fathers and their children. European Journal of Criminology, 9, 120–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bijleveld, C. J. H., & Wijkman, M. (2009). Intergenerational continuity in convictions: A five-generation study. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 19, 142–155. doi:10.1002/cbm.714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burton, L. M. (1996). Age norms, the timing of family role transitions, and intergenerational caregiving among aging African American women. The Gerontologist, 36(2), 199–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Capaldi, D. M., Pears, K. C., Patterson, G. R., & Owen, L. D. (2003). Continuity of parenting practices across generations in an at-risk sample: A prospective comparison of direct and mediated associations. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 127–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Capaldi, D. M., Pears, K. C., Kerr, D. C. R. (2012). The Oregon Youth study three-generational study: Theory, design, and findings. The International Society for the Study of Behavioural Development Bulletin, Serial No. 62 (pp. 29–33).

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, M. J. (2006). Family structure, father involvement, and adolescent behavioral outcomes. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 137–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., . . . Poulton, R. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851–854.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cherlin, A. J., & Furstenberg, F. F., Jr. (1992). The new American grandparent: A place in the family, a life apart. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Lorenz, F. O., Elder, G. H., Jr., Simons, R. L., & Ge, X. (1993). Husband and wife differences in response to undesirable life events. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 34, 71–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Neppl, T. K., Kim, K. J., & Scaramella, L. V. (2003). Angry and aggressive behavior across three generations: A prospective, longitudinal study of parents and children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 143–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., & Martin, M. J. (2010). Socioeconomic status, family processes, and individual development. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 685–704.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Schofield, T. J., & Neppl, T. K. (2012). Intergenerational continuity and discontinuity in harsh parenting. Parenting: Science and Practice, 12, 222–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doherty, W. J., Kouneski, E. F., & Erickson, M. F. (1998). Responsible fathering: An overview and conceptual framework. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 277–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dong, B., & Krohn, M. D. (2014). Exploring intergenerational discontinuity in problem behavior: Bad parents with good children. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. doi:10.1177/1541204014527119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doumas, D., Margolin, G., & John, R. S. (1994). The intergenerational transmission of aggression across three generations. Journal of Family Violence, 9, 157–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elder, G. H., Jr. (1985). Perspectives on the life course. In G. H. Elder Jr. (Ed.), Life course dynamics (pp. 23–49). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrington, D. P. (1993). Have any individual, family or neighbourhood influences on offending been demonstrated conclusively? In D. P. Farrington, R. J. Sampson, & P.-O. H. Wikström (Eds.), Integrating individual and ecological aspects of crime (pp. 7–37). Stockholm: Allmaana Forlaget.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frisell, T., Lichtenstein, P., & Langstrom, N. (2011). Violent crime runs in families: A total population study of 12.5 million individuals. Psychological Medicine, 41, 97–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, B. E., Chermack, S. T., Cruise, K. A., Kirsch, E., Fitzgerald, H. E., & Zucker, R. A. (2003). Predictors of aggression across three generations among sons of alcoholics: Relationships involving grandparental and parental alcoholism, child aggression, marital aggression and parenting practices. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64, 472–483.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Granovetter, M. (1985). Economic action and social structure: The problem of embeddedness. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 481–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haller, M. M., & Chassin, L. (2010). The reciprocal influences of perceived risk for alcoholism and alcohol use over time: Evidence for aversive transmission of parental alcoholism. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 71, 588–596.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, K. M., Halpern, C. T., Whitsel, E., Hussey, J., Tabor, J., Entzel, P., Udry, J. R. (2009). The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health: Research Design [WWW document]. URL: http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design.

  • Hetherington, E. M., & Kelly, J. (2002). For better or for worse. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofferth, S. L., & Goldscheider, F. (2010). Family structure and the transition to early parenthood. Demography, 47, 415–437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huesmann, L. R., Eron, L. D., Lefkowitz, M. M., & Walder, L. O. (1984). Stability of aggression over time and generations. Developmental Psychology, 20, 1120–1134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaffee, S. R., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Taylor, A. (2003). Life with (or without) father: The benefits of living with two biological parents depend on the father’s antisocial behavior. Child Development, 74, 109–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, H. B., & Tolle, G. C., Jr. (2006). The cycle of deviant behavior: Investigating intergenerational parallelism. New York: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, J. B. (2000). Children’s adjustment in conflicted marriage and divorce: A decade review of research. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 963–973.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, D. C. R., Capaldi, D. M., Pears, K. C., & Owen, L. D. (2012). Intergenerational influences on early alcohol use: Independence from the problem behavior pathway. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 889–906.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knight, K. E., Menard, S., & Simmons, S. B. (2014). Intergenerational continuity of substance use. Substance Use & Misuse, 49, 221–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laird, N. M., & Lange, C. (2006). Family-based designs in the age of large-scale gene-association studies. Nature Reviews Genetics, 7, 385–394. doi:10.1038/nrg1839.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, M. E., & Tamis-Lemonda, C. S. (2004). The role of the father: An introduction. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (pp. 1–31). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovegrove, P. J. (2010). Explaining discontinuous cross-generational patterns of delinquency. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magnuson, K., & Berger, L. M. (2009). Family structure states and transitions: Associations with children’s well-being during middle childhood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 71, 575–591.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mare, R. D. (2011). A multigenerational view of inequality. Demography, 48, 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, M. J., Conger, R. D., Schofield, T. J., Dogan, S. J., Widaman, K. F., Donnellan, M. B., & Neppl, T. K. (2010). Evaluation of the interactionist model of socioeconomic status and problem behavior: A developmental cascade across generations. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 697–715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, G. M., Daniels, K., & Chandra, A. (2012). Fertility of men and women aged 15–44 years in the United States: National survey of family growth, 2006–2010 National Health Statistics report. Hyattsville: National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCutcheon, A. L. (1987). Latent class analysis (Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences Series No. 64). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C. (1990). The impact of economic hardship on black families and children: Psychological distress, parenting, and socioemotional development. Child Development, 61, 311–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miles, D. R., & Carey, G. (1997). Genetic environment architecture of human aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 207–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., & Milne, B. J. (2002). Males on the life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: Follow-up at age 26 years. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 179–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagin, D. S. (2009). Group-based modeling of development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagin, D. S., Pogarsky, G., & Farrington, D. P. (1997). Adolescent mothers and the criminal behavior of their children. Law and Society Review, 31, 137–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neppl, T. K., Conger, R. D., Scaramella, L. V., & Ontai, L. L. (2009). Intergenerational continuity in parenting behavior: Mediating pathways and child effects. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1241–1256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. J. (1992). Antisocial boys. Eugene: Castalia Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearl, J. (2009). Causality: Models, reasoning, and inference. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Phares, V., Fields, S., Kamboukos, D., & Lopez, E. (2005). Still looking for poppa. American Psychologist, 60, 735–736.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piquero, A. R., Farrington, D. P., & Blumstein, A. (2003). The criminal career paradigm. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice: A review of research (Vol. 30, pp. 359–506). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plomin, R. (1989). Behavioral genetics. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 177, 645.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prinzie, P., & Onghena, P. (2005). Cohort sequential design. In B. S. Everitt & D. C. Howell (Eds.), Encyclopedia of statistics in behavioral science (Vol. 1, pp. 319–322). Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhee, S. H., & Waldman, I. D. (2002). Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 490–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rindfuss, R. R., Swicegood, C. G., & Rosenfeld, R. (1987). Disorder in the life course: How common and does it matter? American Sociological Review, 52, 785–801.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, P. R., & Rubin, D. B. (1983). The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika, 70, 41–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scaramella, L. V., & Conger, R. D. (2003). Intergenerational continuity of hostile parenting and its consequences: The moderating influence of children’s negative emotional reactivity. Social Development, 12, 420–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scaramella, L. V., Conger, R. D., & Simons, R. L. (1999). Parental protective influences and gender-specific increases in adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9, 111–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scaramella, L. V., Neppl, T. K., Ontai, L. L., & Conger, R. D. (2008). Consequences of socioeconomic disadvantage across three generations: Parenting behavior and child externalizing problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 725–733.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharkey, P. (2008). The intergenerational transmission of context. American Journal of Sociology, 113(4), 931–969.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C. A., & Farrington, D. P. (2004). Continuities in antisocial behavior and parenting across three generations. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines, 45, 230–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P. (1989). Panel effects and the use of self-reported measures of delinquency in longitudinal studies. In M. W. Klein (Ed.), Cross-national research in self-reported crime and delinquency (pp. 347–369). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P. (2005). Explaining multiple patterns of offending across the life course and across generations. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 602, 156–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P. (2009). The apple doesn’t fall far from the tree (or does it?): Intergenerational patterns of antisocial behavior. Criminology, 47, 297–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P., & Henry, K. L. (2013). Intergenerational continuity in maltreatment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 555–569.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P., Krohn, M. D., Lizotte, A. J., Smith, C. A., & Tobin, K. (2003). Gangs and delinquency in developmental perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P., Krohn, M., & Freeman-Gallant, A. (2006). Intergenerational roots of early onset substance use. Journal of Drug Issues, 36, 1–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P., Freeman-Gallant, A., & Lovegrove, P. J. (2009a). The impact of parental stressors on the intergenerational transmission of antisocial behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 312–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P., Freeman-Gallant, A., & Lovegrove, P. J. (2009b). Intergeneration linkages in antisocial behavior. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 19, 80–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torche, F., Warren, J. R., Halpern-Manners, A., & Valenzuela, E. (2012). Panel conditioning in a longitudinal study of adolescents’ substance use: Evidence from an experiment. Social Forces, 90, 891–918.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R. E., & Nagin, D. S. (2005). The developmental origins of physical aggression in humans. In R. E. Tremblay, W. W. Hartup, & J. Archer (Eds.), Developmental origins of aggression (pp. 83–106). New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • van de Rakt, M., Nieuwbeerta, P., & de Graaf, N. D. (2008). Like father, like son: The relationships between conviction trajectories of fathers and their sons and daughters. British Journal of Criminology, 48, 538–556.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vuolo, M., & Staff, J. (2013). Parent and child cigarette use: A longitudinal, multigenerational study. Pediatrics, 132, e568–e577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wickrama, T., Wickrama, K. A. S., & Baltimore, D. L. (2010). Adolescent precocious development and young adult health outcomes. Advances in Life Course Research, 15, 121–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, P., & Kandel, D. B. (1995). The roles of mothers and fathers in intergenerational behavioral transmission: The case of smoking and delinquency. In H. B. Kaplan (Ed.), Drugs, crime, and other deviant adaptations: Longitudinal studies (pp. 49–81). New York: Plenum Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

Support for the Rochester Youth Development Study has been provided by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA020195). Work on this project was also aided by grants to the Center for Social and Demographic Analysis at the University at Albany from NICHD (P30HD32041) and NSF (SBR-9512290). Points of view or opinions in this document are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the funding agencies. I would like to thank Jason Boardman, Kimberly Henry, Marvin Krohn, Thomas Loughran, and Pamela Porter for commenting on and helping with this paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

    Terence P. Thornberry

Authors
  1. Terence P. Thornberry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Terence P. Thornberry .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA

    Michael J. Shanahan

  2. Life Course Center and Department of Sociology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA

    Jeylan T. Mortimer

  3. Department of Sociology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA

    Monica Kirkpatrick Johnson

Appendix: The Rochester Intergenerational Study

Appendix: The Rochester Intergenerational Study

The Rochester Intergenerational Study started as an add-on to an existing longitudinal study, the Rochester Youth Development Study, which began in 1988. Its core design is summarized in the left-hand portion of Fig. 3. We began with a sample of 1,000 seventh and eighth graders from the Rochester, New York public schools. The initial purpose of the project was to study the causes and consequences of serious, chronic, and violent delinquency. Because of that, we oversampled males, 3 to 1, given their greater involvement in serious violent offending. We also oversampled youth who resided in neighborhoods with a high resident arrest rate. The sample can be weighted to account for this stratification. The final sample of G2 participants averaged 14 years of age; 73 % were males and 27 % were females. The full G2 panel was followed forward with 12 interviews from age 14 to 23, at which point the retention rate was 85 %. In addition, we also interviewed one of their G1 parents 11 times; 85 % of the G1 respondents were the G2 child’s biological mother and another 10 % were stepmothers. In addition to the interviews that were conducted at regular intervals, we also collected information from schools, police, and child protective services. Details of the Rochester study design are presented in Thornberry et al. (2003).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Research design for the Rochester Intergenerational Study

Full size image

The Rochester Intergenerational Study (RIGS), described in the right-hand portion of Fig. 3, began in 1999. The focal participants are the oldest biological child of each of the initial G2 participants. In Year 1 (1999), 370 children (ages 2–13, average age 6) and their families enrolled in the study. In each subsequent year we identified additional first-born children and enrolled them in the study as they turned 2. A total of 530 G3 children have enrolled in the study, currently ranging in age from 2 to 29 with an average age of 19. Importantly, therefore, many now overlap in age with the age of the G2 parents when they were first assessed as part of the original Rochester study.

For each family in the intergenerational study we annually interview three participants. We assess the G2 parents (the original adolescent participants in the Rochester Study), the G3 child when they are 8 years and older, and another primary caregiver (OCG) for each G3 child. In the case of G2 fathers, the OCG is almost invariably (93 %) the child’s biological mother. In the case of G2 mothers, however, the OCGs are grandmothers (47 %), biological fathers (31 %), stepfathers (6 %), aunts (7 %), and others (9 %). At younger ages when G3 could not be interviewed, we conducted videotaped observations of G3 interacting with G2 and with OCG. We also collected DNA from a subsample of the families. Finally, we collect data from official agencies such as police and social services. More detail about the RIGS design can be found in Thornberry (2009).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Thornberry, T.P. (2016). Three Generation Studies: Methodological Challenges and Promise. In: Shanahan, M., Mortimer, J., Kirkpatrick Johnson, M. (eds) Handbook of the Life Course. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20880-0_25

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20880-0_25

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-20879-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-20880-0

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation