Abstract
Oncogenesis or cancer formation is the expression of impaired cellular events in the favor of uncontrolled cell growth and proliferation. This occurs basically by disruptions in harmonious control effects of the growth-inducing, growth-inhibiting, apoptosis-regulating, and DNA-repairing mechanisms. A simplified understanding of these mechanisms is given in this chapter. In the first part of the chapter, regarding the concepts of susceptibility to and formation of cancers, the basic knowledge of cellular genetic content and events is reviewed.In the second part, molecular basis of oncogenesis is explained regarding the eight hallmarks of cancers. For better understanding, well-described examples of mechanisms responsible in musculoskeletal system tumors are given through the text. Certainly, cellular and molecular aspects of oncogenesis will continue to be the primary field of future investigations to reach better understanding, diagnosis, treatment, and prediction of prognosis of cancers.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Yuan J, Fuchs B, Scully SP (2007) Molecular basis of cancer. In: OBS-3, Einhorn TA, O’Keefe RJ, Buckwalter JA (eds) Orthopaedic basic science, 3rd edn. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, Rosemont. ISBN: 139780892039340, Chapter 21, pp 379–393
Mitchell RN (2015) The cell as a unit of health and disease. In: Kumar V, Abbas AK, Aster JC (eds) Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease, 9th edn. International edition, Philadelphia. ISBN: 978-0-8089-2450-0, Chapter 1, pp 1–29. 2015, by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc
Jones KB MD (2011) Musculoskeletal oncology. In: Flynn JM MD (ed) Orthopaedic knowledge update, 10th edn. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, Rosemont, pp 193–212, Chapter 17
Hall PA, Watt FM (1989) Stem cells: the generation and maintenance of cellular diversity. Development 106(4):619–633, Review
Kafchinski LA, Jones KB (2014) MicroRNAs in osteosarcomagenesis. Adv Exp Med Biol 804:119–127. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-04843-7_6, Review
Miao J, Wu S, Peng Z, Tania M, Zhang C (2013) MicroRNAs in osteosarcoma: diagnostic and therapeutic aspects. Tumour Biol 34(4):2093–2098, Review
Amary MF, Damato S, Halai D, Eskandarpour M, Berisha F, Bonar F, McCarthy S, Fantin VR, Straley KS, Lobo S, Aston W, Green CL, Gale RE, Tirabosco R, Futreal A, Campbell P, Presneau N, Flanagan AM (2011) Ollier disease and Maffucci syndrome are caused by somatic mosaic mutations of IDH1 and IDH2. Nat Genet 43(12):1262–1265. doi:10.1038/ng.994
Lawlor ER, Thiele CJ (2012) Epigenetic changes in pediatric solid tumors: promising new targets. Clin Cancer Res 18(10):2768–2779. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-1921, Review
Lee JY, Lee TH (2012) Effects of histone acetylation and CpG methylation on the structure of nucleosomes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1824(8):974–982. doi:10.1016/j.bbapap.2012.05.006, Epub 2012 May 22. Review
Galluzzi L, Morselli E, Kepp O, Vitale I, Rigoni A, Vacchelli E, Michaud M, Zischka H, Castedo M, Kroemer G (2010) Mitochondrial gateways to cancer. Mol Aspects Med 31(1):1–20. doi:10.1016/j.mam.2009.08.002, Epub 2009 Aug 19. Review
Gogvadze V, Zhivotovsky B, Orrenius S (2010) The Warburg effect and mitochondrial stability in cancer cells. Mol Aspects Med 31(1):60–74. doi:10.1016/j.mam.2009.12.004, Epub 2009 Dec 6. Review
Franceschi C (1989) Cell proliferation, cell death and aging. Aging (Milano) 1(1):3–15, Review
Tzen CY, Estervig DN, Minoo P, Filipak M, Maercklein PB, Hoerl BJ, Scott RE (1988) Differentiation, cancer, and anticancer activity. Biochem Cell Biol 66(6):478–489, Review
Hanahan D, Weinberg RA (2000) The hallmarks of cancer. Cell 100(1):57–70, Review
Hanahan D, Weinberg RA (2011) Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell 144(5):646–674. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.02.013, Review
Kumar V, Abbas AK, Aster C (2015) Neoplasia. In: Kumar V, Abbas AK, Aster JC (eds) Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease, 9th edn. International edition, Philadelphia, pp 265–340. ISBN: 978-0-8089-2450-0, Chapter 7. 2015, by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc
Krishnan B MS, Khanna G MD, Clohisy D MD (2008) Gene translocations in musculoskeletal neoplasms. Clin Orthop Relat Res 466(9):2131–2146
Flanagan AM, Delaney D, O’Donnell P (2010) The benefits of molecular pathology in the diagnosis of musculoskeletal disease : part I of a two-part review: soft tissue tumors. Skeletal Radiol 39(2):105–115. doi:10.1007/s00256-009-0759-x
Flanagan AM, Delaney D, O’Donnell P (2010) Benefits of molecular pathology in the diagnosis of musculoskeletal disease : part II of a two-part review: bone tumors and metabolic disorders. Skeletal Radiol 39(3):213–224. doi:10.1007/s00256-009-0758-y
Marina N, Gebhardt M, Teot L, Gorlick R (2004) Biology and therapeutic advances for pediatric osteosarcoma. Oncologist 9(4):422–441, Review. (osteosarcoma oncogenes)
Perry JA, Kiezun A, Tonzi P, Van Allen EM, Carter SL, Baca SC, Cowley GS, Bhatt AS, Rheinbay E, Pedamallu CS, Helman E, Taylor-Weiner A, McKenna A, DeLuca DS, Lawrence MS, Ambrogio L, Sougnez C, Sivachenko A, Walensky LD, Wagle N, Mora J, de Torres C, Lavarino C, Dos Santos AS, Yunes JA, Brandalise SR, Mercado-Celis GE, Melendez-Zajgla J, Cárdenas-Cardós R, Velasco-Hidalgo L, Roberts CW, Garraway LA, Rodriguez-Galindo C, Gabriel SB, Lander ES, Golub TR, Orkin SH, Getz G, Janeway KA (2014) Complementary genomic approaches highlight the PI3K/mTOR pathway as a common vulnerability in osteosarcoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111(51):E5564–E5573. doi:10.1073/pnas.1419260111, Epub 2014 Dec PubMed PMID: 25512523, PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4280630
Puls F, Niblett AJ, Mangham DC (2014) Molecular pathology of bone tumours: diagnostic implications. Histopathology 64(4):461–476. doi:10.1111/his.12275
Sorensen PH, Lessnick SL, Lopez-Terrada D, Liu XF, Triche TJ, Denny CT (1994) A second Ewing’s sarcoma translocation, t(21;22), fuses the EWS gene to another ETS-family transcription factor. ERG Nat Genet 6(2):146–151
Couvineau A, Wouters V, Bertrand G, Rouyer C, Gérard B, Boon LM, Grandchamp B, Vikkula M, Silve C (2008) PTHR1 mutations associated with Ollier disease result in receptor loss of function. Hum Mol Genet 17(18):2766–2775. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddn176
Trosko JE, Chang CC, Upham BL, Tai MH (2004) Ignored hallmarks of carcinogenesis: stem cells and cell-cell communication. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1028:192–201, Review
Wang LL, Gannavarapu A, Kozinetz CA et al (2003) Association between osteosarcoma and deleterious mutations in the RECQL4 gene in Rothmund-Thomson syndrome. J Natl Cancer Inst 95(9):669–674. doi:10.1093/jnci/95.9.669
Horvai A (2015) Bones, joints, and soft tissue tumors. In: Kumar V, Abbas AK, Aster JC (eds) Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease, 9th edn. International edition, Philadelphia. ISBN: 978-0-8089-2450-0. Chapter 26, pp 1179–1226. 2015, by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc
Morcuende JA, Buckwalter JA (1997) New advances in the molecular biology of musculoskeletal neoplasms. Iowa Orthop J 17:115–120
Sandberg AA, Bridge JA (2003) Updates on the cytogenetics and molecular genetics of bone and soft tissue tumors: osteosarcoma and related tumors. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 145(1):1–30, Review. (oncogenes)
Duhamel LA, Ye H, Halai D, Idowu BD, Presneau N, Tirabosco R, Flanagan AM (2012) Frequency of mouse double minute 2 (MDM2) and mouse double minute 4 (MDM4) amplification in parosteal and conventional osteosarcoma subtypes. Histopathology 60(2):357–359. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2559.2011.04023.x
Momand J, Jung D, Wilczynski S, Niland J (1998) The MDM2 gene amplification database. Nucleic Acids Res 26(15):3453–3459, Review
Chufan EE, Sim HM, Ambudkar SV (2015) Molecular basis of the polyspecificity of P-glycoprotein (ABCB1): recent biochemical and structural studies. Adv Cancer Res 125:71–96. doi:10.1016/bs.acr.2014.10.003 (MDR-1)
Hattinger CM, Stoico G, Michelacci F, Pasello M, Scionti I, Remondini D, Castellani GC, Fanelli M, Scotlandi K, Picci P, Serra M (2009) Mechanisms of gene amplification and evidence of coamplification in drug-resistant human osteosarcoma cell lines. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 48(4):289–309. doi:10.1002/gcc.20640
Brownhill SC, Taylor C, Burchill SA (2007) Chromosome 9p21 gene copy number and prognostic significance of p16 in ESFT. Br J Cancer 96(12):1914–1923, Epub 2007 May 29
Mohseny AB, Tieken C, van der Velden PA, Szuhai K, de Andrea C, Hogendoorn PC, Cleton-Jansen AM (2010) Small deletions but not methylations underlie CDKN2A/p16 loss of expression in conventional osteosarcoma. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 49(12):1095–1103. doi:10.1002/gcc.20817
Flynn RL, Cox KE, Jeitany M, Wakimoto H, Bryll AR, Ganem NJ, Bersani F, Pineda JR, Suvà ML, Benes CH, Haber DA, Boussin FD, Zou L (2015) Alternative lengthening of telomeres renders cancer cells hypersensitive to ATR inhibitors. Science 347(6219):273–277. doi:10.1126/science.1257216
Gocha AR, Nuovo G, Iwenofu OH, Groden J (2013) Human sarcomas are mosaic for telomerase-dependent and telomerase-independent telomere maintenance mechanisms: implications for telomere-based therapies. Am J Pathol 182(1):41–48. doi:10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.10.001
Weng NP (2012) Telomeres and immune competency. Curr Opin Immunol 24(4):470–475. doi:10.1016/j.coi.2012.05.001, Epub 2012 May 22. Review
Franovic A, Holterman CE, Payette J, Lee S (2009) Human cancers converge at the HIF-2alpha oncogenic axis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106(50):21306–21311. doi:10.1073/pnas.0906432106, Epub 2009 Dec 2
Marxsen JH, Stengel P, Doege K, Heikkinen P, Jokilehto T, Wagner T, Jelkmann W, Jaakkola P, Metzen E (2004) Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) promotes its degradation by induction of HIF-alpha-prolyl-4-hydroxylases. Biochem J 381(Pt 3):761–767
Klotzsche-von Ameln A, Prade I, Grosser M, Kettelhake A, Rezaei M, Chavakis T, Flamme I, Wielockx B, Breier G (2013) PHD4 stimulates tumor angiogenesis in osteosarcoma cells via TGF-α. Mol Cancer Res 11(11):1337–1348. doi:10.1158/1541-7786.MCR-13-0201, Epub 2013 Sep 18
Kashima T, Kawaguchi J, Takeshita S, Kuroda M, Takanashi M, Horiuchi H, Imamura T, Ishikawa Y, Ishida T, Mori S, Machinami R, Kudo A (1999) Anomalous cadherin expression in osteosarcoma. Possible relationships to metastasis and morphogenesis. Am J Pathol 155(5):1549–1555
Kingsley LA, Fournier PG, Chirgwin JM, Guise TA (2007) Molecular biology of bone metastasis. Mol Cancer Ther 6(10):2609–2617
Matuschek C, Lehnhardt M, Gerber PA, Poremba C, Hamilton J, Lammering G, Orth K, Budach W, Bojar H, Bölke E, Peiper M (2014) Increased CD44s and decreased CD44v6 RNA expression are associated with better survival in myxofibrosarcoma patients: a pilot study. Eur J Med Res 19:6. doi:10.1186/2047-783X-19-6
Sancéau J, Truchet S, Bauvois B (2003) Matrix metalloproteinase-9 silencing by RNA interference triggers the migratory-adhesive switch in Ewing’s sarcoma cells. J Biol Chem 278(38):36537–36546, Epub 2003 Jul 7
Ramaswamy S, Ross KN, Lander ES, Golub TR (2003) A molecular signature of metastasis in primary solid tumors. Nat Genet 33(1):49–54, Epub 2002
Cavallo F, De Giovanni C, Nanni P, Forni G, Lollini PL (2011) The immune hallmarks of cancer. Cancer Immunol Immunother 60(3):319–326. doi:10.1007/s00262-010-0968-0
Colotta F, Allavena P, Sica A, Garlanda C, Mantovani A (2009) Cancer-related inflammation, the seventh hallmark of cancer: links to genetic instability. Carcinogenesis 30(7):1073–1081. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgp127, Epub 2009 May 25. Review
Holzer G, Pfandlsteiner T, Blahovec H, Trieb K, Kotz R (2003) Serum levels of TNF-beta and sTNF-R in patients with malignant bone tumours. Anticancer Res 23(3C):3057–3059
Oliveira ID, Petrilli AS, Tavela MH, Zago MA, de Toledo SR (2007) TNF-alpha, TNF-beta, IL-6, IL-10, PECAM-1 and the MPO inflammatory gene polymorphisms in osteosarcoma. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 29(5):293–297
Susnow N, Zeng L, Margineantu D, Hockenbery DM (2009) Bcl-2 family proteins as regulators of oxidative stress. Semin Cancer Biol 19(1):42–49. doi:10.1016/j.semcancer.2008.12.002, Epub 2008 Dec 24. Review
Tennant DA, Durán RV, Boulahbel H, Gottlieb E (2009) Metabolic transformation in cancer. Carcinogenesis 30(8):1269–1280. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgp070, Epub 2009 Mar 25. Review
Trieb K, Lechleitner T, Lang S, Windhager R, Kotz R, Dirnhofer S (1998) Evaluation of HLA-DR expression and T-lymphocyte infiltration in osteosarcoma. Pathol Res Pract 194(10):679–684
Bonuccelli G, Avnet S, Grisendi G, Salerno M, Granchi D, Dominici M, Kusuzaki K, Baldini N (2014) Role of mesenchymal stem cells in osteosarcoma and metabolic reprogramming of tumor cells. Oncotarget 5(17):7575–7588
Dang CV, Hamaker M, Sun P, Le A, Gao P (2011) Therapeutic targeting of cancer cell metabolism. J Mol Med (Berl) 89(3):205–212. doi:10.1007/s00109-011-0730-x, Epub 2011 Feb 8. Review
Giang AH, Raymond T, Brookes P, de Mesy Bentley K, Schwarz E, O’Keefe R, Eliseev R (2013) Mitochondrial dysfunction and permeability transition in osteosarcoma cells showing the Warburg effect. J Biol Chem 288(46):33303–33311. doi:10.1074/jbc.M113.507129, Epub 2013 Oct 7
Koppenol WH, Bounds PL, Dang CV (2011) Otto Warburg’s contributions to current concepts of cancer metabolism. Nat Rev Cancer 11(8):618. doi:10.1038/nrc3038, Epub 2011 Apr 14. Review. Erratum in
Ortega AD, Sánchez-Aragó M, Giner-Sánchez D, Sánchez-Cenizo L, Willers I, Cuezva JM (2009) Glucose avidity of carcinomas. Cancer Lett 276(2):125–135. doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2008.08.007, Epub 2008 Sep 14. Review
Sotgia F, Martinez-Outschoorn UE, Lisanti MP (2014) The reverse Warburg effect in osteosarcoma. Oncotarget 5(18):7982–7983
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Eskandari, M.M., Esenkaya, İ. (2016). Oncogenesis. In: Korkusuz, F. (eds) Musculoskeletal Research and Basic Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20777-3_34
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20777-3_34
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-20776-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-20777-3
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)