Abstract
Organic photovoltaics (OPV) describes a group of technologies wherein the active layer of a solar cell is composed of hydrocarbon-based organic materials. OPV occupies a special niche among solar energy technologies in that it could potentially satisfy the growing energy needs of the world with a product that is sustainable, elementally abundant, and cheaply manufactured. This review describes some materials used for organic photovoltaics, important materials structure measurements related to them, and the outlook for organic photovoltaics in the near future.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Brabec, C.J.: Organic Photovoltaics: Concepts and Realization. Springer, Berlin (2003)
Brabec, C., Scherf, U., Dyakonov, V.: Organic Photovoltaics: Materials, Device Physics, and Manufacturing Technologies. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken (2011)
Dennler, G., Scharber, M.C., Brabec, C.J.: Polymer-fullerene bulk-heterojunction solar cells. Adv. Mater. 21, 1323–1338 (2009)
Kazmerski, L.: Best research-cell efficiencies. at http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv/
You, J., et al.: A polymer tandem solar cell with 10.6Â % power conversion efficiency. Nat. Commun. 4, 1446 (2013)
Brabec, C.J., et al.: Polymer-fullerene bulk-heterojunction solar cells. Adv. Mater. 22, 3839–3856 (2010)
O’Regan, B., Grätzel, M.: A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO2 films. Nature 353, 737–740 (1991)
Kallmann, H., Pope, M.: Photovoltaic effect in organic crystals. J. Chem. Phys. 30, 585–586 (1959)
Gomes da Costa, P., Conwell, E.M.: Excitons and the band gap in poly(phenylene vinylene). Phys. Rev. B 48, 1993–1996 (1993)
Brédas, J.-L., Cornil, J., Heeger, A.J.: The exciton binding energy in luminescent conjugated polymers. Adv. Mater. 8, 447–452 (1996)
Barth, S., Bässler, H.: Intrinsic photoconduction in PPV-type conjugated polymers. Phys. Rev. Lett. 79, 4445–4448 (1997)
Alvarado, S.F., Seidler, P.F., Lidzey, D.G., Bradley, D.D.C.: Direct determination of the exciton binding energy of conjugated polymers using a scanning tunneling microscope. Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 1082–1085 (1998)
Tang, C.W.: Two-layer organic photovoltaic cell. Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 183–185 (1986)
Chamberlain, G.A.: Organic solar cells: a review. Sol. Cells 8, 47–83 (1983)
Halls, J.J.M., Pichler, K., Friend, R.H., Moratti, S.C., Holmes, A.B.: Exciton diffusion and dissociation in a poly(p-phenylenevinylene)/C60 heterojunction photovoltaic cell. Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 3120–3122 (1996)
Markov, D.E., Tanase, C., Blom, P.W.M., Wildeman, J.: Simultaneous enhancement of charge transport and exciton diffusion in poly(p-phenylene vinylene) derivatives. Phys. Rev. B 72, 045217 (2005)
Markov, D.E., Amsterdam, E., Blom, P.W.M., Sieval, A.B., Hummelen, J.C.: Accurate measurement of the exciton diffusion length in a conjugated polymer using a heterostructure with a side-chain cross-linked fullerene layer. J. Phys. Chem. A 109, 5266–5274 (2005)
Heeger, A.J.: 25th anniversary article: bulk heterojunction solar cells: understanding the mechanism of operation. Adv. Mater. 26, 10–28 (2014)
Sariciftci, N.S., Smilowitz, L., Heeger, A.J., Wudl, F.: Photoinduced electron transfer from a conducting polymer to buckminsterfullerene. Science 258, 1474–1476 (1992)
Kraabel, B., et al.: Ultrafast photoinduced electron transfer in conducting polymer–buckminsterfullerene composites. Chem. Phys. Lett. 213, 389–394 (1993)
Brabec, C.J., et al.: Tracing photoinduced electron transfer process in conjugated polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunctions in real time. Chem. Phys. Lett. 340, 232–236 (2001)
Yu, G., Gao, J., Hummelen, J.C., Wudl, F., Heeger, A.J.: Polymer photovoltaic cells: enhanced efficiencies via a network of internal donor-acceptor heterojunctions. Science 270, 1789–1791 (1995)
Shaheen, S.E., et al.: 2.5 % efficient organic plastic solar cells. Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 841–843 (2001)
DeLongchamp, D.M., Kline, R.J., Herzing, A.: Nanoscale structure measurements for polymer-fullerene photovoltaics. Energy Environ. Sci. 5, 5980–5993 (2012)
Vandewal, K., Himmelberger, S., Salleo, A.: Structural factors that affect the performance of organic bulk heterojunction solar cells. Macromolecules 130807112515002 (2013). doi:10.1021/ma400924b
Vakhshouri, K., Kesava, S.V., Kozub, D.R., Gomez, E.D.: Characterization of the mesoscopic structure in the photoactive layer of organic solar cells: a focused review. Mater. Lett. 90, 97–102 (2013)
Scharber, M.C., et al.: Design rules for donors in bulk-heterojunction solar cells—towards 10 % energy-conversion efficiency. Adv. Mater. 18, 789–794 (2006)
Beaujuge, P.M., Fréchet, J.M.J.: Molecular design and ordering effects in π-functional materials for transistor and solar cell applications. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, 20009–20029 (2011)
Dang, M.T., Hirsch, L., Wantz, G.: P3HT:PCBM, best seller in polymer photovoltaic research. Adv. Mater. 23, 3597–3602 (2011)
Marrocchi, A., Lanari, D., Facchetti, A., Vaccaro, L.: Poly(3-hexylthiophene): synthetic methodologies and properties in bulk heterojunction solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 5, 8457–8474 (2012)
Hotta, S., Rughooputh, S.D.D.V., Heeger, A.J., Wudl, F.: Spectroscopic studies of soluble poly(3-alkylthienylenes). Macromolecules 20, 212–215 (1987)
McCullough, R.D., Lowe, R.D.: Enhanced electrical conductivity in regioselectively synthesized poly(3-alkylthiophenes). J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 70–72 (1992). doi:10.1039/C39920000070
Chen, T.-A., Wu, X., Rieke, R.D.: Regiocontrolled synthesis of poly(3-alkylthiophenes) mediated by Rieke Zinc: their characterization and solid-state properties. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117, 233–244 (1995)
Loewe, R.S., Khersonsky, S.M., McCullough, R.D.: A simple method to prepare head-to-tail coupled, regioregular poly(3-alkylthiophenes) using grignard metathesis. Adv. Mater. 11, 250–253 (1999)
Prosa, T.J., Winokur, M.J., Moulton, J., Smith, P., Heeger, A.J.: X-ray structural studies of poly(3-alkylthiophenes): an example of an inverse comb. Macromolecules 25, 4364–4372 (1992)
Joseph Kline, R., McGehee, M.D., Toney, M.F.: Highly oriented crystals at the buried interface in polythiophene thin-film transistors. Nat. Mater. 5, 222–228 (2006)
Zhan, X., Zhu, D.: Conjugated polymers for high-efficiency organic photovoltaics. Polym. Chem. 1, 409 (2010)
Inganäs, O., et al.: Polymer photovoltaics with alternating copolymer/fullerene blends and novel device architectures. Adv. Mater. 22, E100–E116 (2010)
Blouin, N., Michaud, A., Leclerc, M.: A low-bandgap poly(2,7-carbazole) derivative for use in high-performance solar cells. Adv. Mater. 19, 2295–2300 (2007)
Beaupré, S., Leclerc, M.: PCDTBT: en route for low cost plastic solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 1, 11097–11105 (2013)
Wang, D.H., et al.: Transferable graphene oxide by stamping nanotechnology: electron-transport layer for efficient bulk-heterojunction solar cells. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 52, 2874–2880 (2013)
Peters, C.H., et al.: High efficiency polymer solar cells with long operating lifetimes. Adv. Energy Mater. 1, 491–494 (2011)
Peet, J., et al.: Efficiency enhancement in low-bandgap polymer solar cells by processing with alkane dithiols. Nat. Mater. 6, 497–500 (2007)
Lee, J.K., et al.: Processing additives for improved efficiency from bulk heterojunction solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, 3619–3623 (2008)
Morana, M., et al.: Nanomorphology and charge generation in bulk heterojunctions based on low-bandgap dithiophene polymers with different bridging atoms. Adv. Funct. Mater. 20, 1180–1188 (2010)
Shin, N. et al.: Effect of processing additives during solidification of blade-coated polymer/fullerene blend films via in-situ structure measurements. Adv. Funct. Mater. (2013)
Liang, Y., et al.: For the bright future—bulk heterojunction polymer solar cells with power conversion efficiency of 7.4 %. Adv. Mater. 22, E135–E138 (2010)
He, Z., et al.: Enhanced power-conversion efficiency in polymer solar cells using an inverted device structure. Nat. Photonics 6, 591–595 (2012)
Carsten, B., et al.: Examining the effect of the dipole moment on charge separation in donor-acceptor polymers for organic photovoltaic applications. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, 20468–20475 (2011)
Price, S.C., Stuart, A.C., Yang, L., Zhou, H., You, W.: Fluorine substituted conjugated polymer of medium band gap yields 7 % efficiency in polymer−fullerene solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, 4625–4631 (2011)
Albrecht, S., et al.: Fluorinated copolymer PCPDTBT with enhanced open-circuit voltage and reduced recombination for highly efficient polymer solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 134, 14932–14944 (2012)
Stuart, A.C., et al.: Fluorine substituents reduce charge recombination and drive structure and morphology development in polymer solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135, 1806–1815 (2013)
Van der Poll, T.S., Love, J.A., Nguyen, T.-Q., Bazan, G.C.: Non-basic high-performance molecules for solution-processed organic solar cells. Adv. Mater. 24, 3646–3649 (2012)
Chen, W., et al.: Hierarchical nanomorphologies promote exciton dissociation in polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells. Nano Lett. 11, 3707–3713 (2011)
Liu, F. et al.: Understanding the morphology of PTB7:PCBM blends in organic photovoltaics. Adv. Energy Mater. 4, n/a–n/a (2014)
Hammond, M.R., et al.: Molecular order in high-efficiency polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells. ACS Nano 5, 8248–8257 (2011)
Hedley, G.J. et al.: Determining the optimum morphology in high-performance polymer-fullerene organic photovoltaic cells. Nat. Commun. 4 (2013)
Guo, S., et al.: Influence of Solvent and Solvent Additive on the Morphology of PTB7 Films Probed via X-ray Scattering. J. Phys. Chem. B 118, 344–350 (2014)
Piliego, C., et al.: Synthetic control of structural order in n-alkylthieno[3,4-c]pyrrole-4,6-dione-based polymers for efficient solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132, 7595–7597 (2010)
Cabanetos, C., et al.: Linear side chains in benzo[1,2-b:4,5-b′]dithiophene–thieno[3,4-c]pyrrole-4,6-dione polymers direct self-assembly and solar cell performance. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135, 4656–4659 (2013)
Lin, Y., Li, Y., Zhan, X.: Small molecule semiconductors for high-efficiency organic photovoltaics. Chem. Soc. Rev. 41, 4245 (2012)
Kyaw, A.K.K., et al.: Intensity dependence of current-voltage characteristics and recombination in high-efficiency solution-processed small-molecule solar cells. ACS Nano 7, 4569–4577 (2013)
Bronstein, H., et al.: Thieno[3,2-b]thiophene−diketopyrrolopyrrole-containing polymers for high-performance organic field-effect transistors and organic photovoltaic devices. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, 3272–3275 (2011)
Walker, B., et al.: Nanoscale phase separation and high photovoltaic efficiency in solution-processed, small-molecule bulk heterojunction solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 19, 3063–3069 (2009)
Tumbleston, J.R., Stuart, A.C., Gann, E., You, W., Ade, H.: Fluorinated polymer yields high organic solar cell performance for a wide range of morphologies. Adv. Funct. Mater. 23, 3463–3470 (2013)
Mei, J., Graham, K.R., Stalder, R., Reynolds, J.R.: Synthesis of isoindigo-based oligothiophenes for molecular bulk heterojunction solar cells. Org. Lett. 12, 660–663 (2010)
Wang, E., et al.: An easily accessible isoindigo-based polymer for high-performance polymer solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, 14244–14247 (2011)
Stalder, R., Grand, C., Subbiah, J., So, F., Reynolds, J.R.: An isoindigo and dithieno[3,2-b:2′,3′-d]silole copolymer for polymer solar cells. Polym. Chem. 3, 89 (2012)
Hummelen, J.C., et al.: Preparation and characterization of fulleroid and methanofullerene derivatives. J. Org. Chem. 60, 532–538 (1995)
Wudl, F.: Fullerene materials. J. Mater. Chem. 12, 1959–1963 (2002)
Giacalone, F., MartÃn, N.: New concepts and applications in the macromolecular chemistry of fullerenes. Adv. Mater. 22, 4220–4248 (2010)
He, Y., Li, Y.: Fullerene derivative acceptors for high performance polymer solar cells. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 13, 1970 (2011)
Wienk, M.M., et al.: Efficient methano[70]fullerene/mdmo-ppv bulk heterojunction photovoltaic cells. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 42, 3371–3375 (2003)
He, C., et al.: Influence of substrate on crystallization in polythiophene/fullerene blends. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 95, 1375–1381 (2011)
Rispens, M.T., et al.: Influence of the solvent on the crystal structure of PCBM and the efficiency of MDMO-PPV:PCBM ‘plastic’ solar cells. Chem. Commun. 2116–2118 (2003). doi:10.1039/B305988J
Collins, B.A., Tumbleston, J.R., Ade, H.: Miscibility, crystallinity, and phase development in P3HT/PCBM solar cells: toward an enlightened understanding of device morphology and stability. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2, 3135–3145 (2011)
Jamieson, F.C., et al.: Fullerene crystallisation as a key driver of charge separation in polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells. Chem. Sci. 3, 485 (2012)
Lenes, M., et al.: Fullerene bisadducts for enhanced open-circuit voltages and efficiencies in polymer solar cells. Adv. Mater. 20, 2116–2119 (2008)
Faist, M.A., et al.: Effect of multiple adduct fullerenes on charge generation and transport in photovoltaic blends with poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl). J. Polym. Sci. Part B Polym. Phys. 49, 45–51 (2011)
Laird, D.W., et al. Organic photovoltaic devices comprising fullerenes and derivatives thereof (2010)
Zhao, G., He, Y., Li, Y.: 6.5 % efficiency of polymer solar cells based on poly(3-hexylthiophene) and Indene-C60 bisadduct by device optimization. Adv. Mater. 22, 4355–4358 (2010)
Anthony, J.E., Facchetti, A., Heeney, M., Marder, S.R., Zhan, X.: n-type organic semiconductors in organic electronics. Adv. Mater. 22, 3876–3892 (2010)
Halls, J.J.M., et al.: Efficient photodiodes from interpenetrating polymer networks. Nature 376, 498–500 (1995)
Yu, G., Heeger, A.J.: Charge separation and photovoltaic conversion in polymer composites with internal donor/acceptor heterojunctions. J. Appl. Phys. 78, 4510–4515 (1995)
Granström, M., et al.: Laminated fabrication of polymeric photovoltaic diodes. Nature 395, 257–260 (1998)
Zhan, X., et al.: A high-mobility electron-transport polymer with broad absorption and its use in field-effect transistors and all-polymer solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 129, 7246–7247 (2007)
Mikroyannidis, J.A., Stylianakis, M.M., Sharma, G.D., Balraju, P., Roy, M.S.: A novel alternating phenylenevinylene copolymer with perylene bisimide units: synthesis, photophysical, electrochemical, and photovoltaic properties. J. Phys. Chem. C 113, 7904–7912 (2009)
Zhou, E., et al.: All-polymer solar cells from perylene diimide based copolymers: material design and phase separation control. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 50, 2799–2803 (2011)
Yan, H., et al.: A high-mobility electron-transporting polymer for printed transistors. Nature 457, 679–686 (2009)
Rivnay, J., et al.: Unconventional face-on texture and exceptional in-plane order of a high mobility n-type polymer. Adv. Mater. 22, 4359–4363 (2010)
Rivnay, J., et al.: Drastic control of texture in a high performance n-type polymeric semiconductor and implications for charge transport. Macromolecules 44, 5246–5255 (2011)
Fabiano, S., et al.: Role of photoactive layer morphology in high fill factor all-polymer bulk heterojunction solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. 21, 5891 (2011)
Moore, J.R., et al.: Polymer blend solar cells based on a high-mobility naphthalenediimide-based polymer acceptor: device physics, photophysics and morphology. Adv. Energy Mater. 1, 230–240 (2011)
Schubert, M., et al.: Influence of aggregation on the performance of all-polymer solar cells containing low-bandgap naphthalenediimide copolymers. Adv. Energy Mater. 2, 369–380 (2012)
Facchetti, A.: Polymer donor–polymer acceptor (all-polymer) solar cells. Mater. Today 16, 123–132 (2013)
Ali-Oettinger, S.: Heliatek announces world record for organic cell. Pv Mag. at http://www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/heliatek-announces-world-record-for-organic-cell_100009859/
Xue, J., Uchida, S., Rand, B.P., Forrest, S.R.: 4.2 % efficient organic photovoltaic cells with low series resistances. Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3013–3015 (2004)
Xue, J., Uchida, S., Rand, B.P., Forrest, S.R.: Asymmetric tandem organic photovoltaic cells with hybrid planar-mixed molecular heterojunctions. Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 5757–5759 (2004)
Schueppel, R., et al.: Optimizing organic photovoltaics using tailored heterojunctions: a photoinduced absorption study of oligothiophenes with low band gaps. Phys. Rev. B 77, 085311 (2008)
Fitzner, R., et al.: Dicyanovinyl-substituted oligothiophenes: structure-property relationships and application in vacuum-processed small molecule organic solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 21, 897–910 (2011)
Lin, L.-Y., et al.: A low-energy-gap organic dye for high-performance small-molecule organic solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, 15822–15825 (2011)
Chiu, S.-W., et al.: A donor–acceptor–acceptor molecule for vacuum-processed organic solar cells with a power conversion efficiency of 6.4 %. Chem. Commun. 48, 1857 (2012)
Kronenberg, N.M., et al.: Direct comparison of highly efficient solution- and vacuum-processed organic solar cells based on merocyanine dyes. Adv. Mater. 22, 4193–4197 (2010)
Rivnay, J., Mannsfeld, S.C.B., Miller, C.E., Salleo, A., Toney, M.F.: Quantitative determination of organic semiconductor microstructure from the molecular to device scale. Chem. Rev. 112, 5488–5519 (2012)
Vandewal, K., Himmelberger, S., Salleo, A.: Structural factors that affect the performance of organic bulk heterojunction solar cells. Macromolecules (2013). doi:10.1021/ma400924b
Dang, M.T., Hirsch, L., Wantz, G., Wuest, J.D.: Controlling the morphology and performance of bulk heterojunctions in solar cells. Lessons learned from the benchmark poly(3-hexylthiophene):[6,6]-phenyl-c61-butyric acid methyl ester system. Chem. Rev. 113, 3734–3765 (2013)
Spano, F.C.: The spectral signatures of frenkel polarons in H- and J-aggregates. Acc. Chem. Res. 43, 429–439 (2010)
Clark, J., Silva, C., Friend, R.H., Spano, F.C.: Role of intermolecular coupling in the photophysics of disordered organic semiconductors: aggregate emission in regioregular polythiophene. Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 206406 (2007)
Spano, F.C.: Modeling disorder in polymer aggregates: the optical spectroscopy of regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) thin films. J. Chem. Phys. 122, 234701–234701–15 (2005)
Clark, J., Chang, J.-F., Spano, F. C., Friend, R.H., Silva, C.: Determining exciton bandwidth and film microstructure in polythiophene films using linear absorption spectroscopy. Appl. Phys. Lett. 94, 163306–163306–3 (2009)
Turner, S.T., et al.: Quantitative analysis of bulk heterojunction films using linear absorption spectroscopy and solar cell performance. Adv. Funct. Mater. 21, 4640–4652 (2011)
Germack, D.S., et al.: Interfacial segregation in polymer/fullerene blend films for photovoltaic devices. Macromolecules 43, 3828–3836 (2010)
Rivnay, J., Noriega, R., Kline, R.J., Salleo, A., Toney, M.F.: Quantitative analysis of lattice disorder and crystallite size in organic semiconductor thin films. Phys. Rev. B 84, 045203 (2011)
Rivnay, J., et al.: Structural origin of gap states in semicrystalline polymers and the implications for charge transport. Phys. Rev. B 83, 121306 (2011)
Van Bavel, S.S., Sourty, E., de With, G., Loos, J.: Three-dimensional nanoscale organization of bulk heterojunction polymer solar cells. Nano Lett. 9, 507–513 (2009)
Van Bavel, S.S., Sourty, E., de With, G., Veenstra, S., Loos, J.: Three-dimensional nanoscale organization of polymer solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. 19, 5388–5393 (2009)
Van Bavel, S.S., Bärenklau, M., de With, G., Hoppe, H., Loos, J.: P3HT/PCBM bulk heterojunction solar cells: impact of blend composition and 3D morphology on device performance. Adv. Funct. Mater. 20, 1458–1463 (2010)
Herzing, A.A., Richter, L.J., Anderson, I.M.: 3D nanoscale characterization of thin-film organic photovoltaic device structures via spectroscopic contrast in the TEM 1. J. Phys. Chem. C 114, 17501–17508 (2010)
Pfannmöller, M., et al.: Visualizing a homogeneous blend in bulk heterojunction polymer solar cells by analytical electron microscopy. Nano Lett. 11, 3099–3107 (2011)
Drummy, L.F., et al.: Molecular-scale and nanoscale morphology of P3HT:PCBM bulk heterojunctions: energy-filtered TEM and low-dose HREM†. Chem. Mater. 23, 907–912 (2011)
Kozub, D.R., et al.: Polymer crystallization of partially miscible polythiophene/fullerene mixtures controls morphology. Macromolecules 44, 5722–5726 (2011)
Wodo, O., Tirthapura, S., Chaudhary, S., Ganapathysubramanian, B.: A graph-based formulation for computational characterization of bulk heterojunction morphology. Org. Electron. 13, 1105–1113 (2012)
Wodo, O., Roehling, J.D., Moule, A., Ganapathysubramanian, B.: Quantifying organic solar cell morphology: a computational study of three-dimensional maps. Energy Environ. Sci. (2013). doi:10.1039/C3EE41224E
Watkins, P.K., Walker, A.B., Verschoor, G.L.B.: Dynamical Monte Carlo modelling of organic solar cells: the dependence of internal quantum efficiency on morphology. Nano Lett. 5, 1814–1818 (2005)
McNeill, C.R., Westenhoff, S., Groves, C., Friend, R.H., Greenham, N.C.: Influence of nanoscale phase separation on the charge generation dynamics and photovoltaic performance of conjugated polymer blends: balancing charge generation and separation. J. Phys. Chem. C 111, 19153–19160 (2007)
Buxton, G.A., Clarke, N.: Predicting structure and property relations in polymeric photovoltaic devices. Phys. Rev. B 74, 085207 (2006)
Kodali, H.K., Ganapathysubramanian, B.: Computer simulation of heterogeneous polymer photovoltaic devices. Model. Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng. 20, 035015 (2012)
Ray, B., Lundstrom, M.S., Alam, M.A.: Can morphology tailoring improve the open circuit voltage of organic solar cells? APL Org. Electron. Photonics 5, 7 (2012)
Ray, B., Alam, M.A.: Random vs regularized OPV: Limits of performance gain of organic bulk heterojunction solar cells by morphology engineering. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 99, 204–212 (2012)
Chen, D., Liu, F., Wang, C., Nakahara, A., Russell, T.P.: Bulk heterojunction photovoltaic active layers via bilayer interdiffusion. Nano Lett. 11, 2071–2078 (2011)
Swaraj, S., et al.: Nanomorphology of bulk heterojunction photovoltaic thin films probed with resonant soft X-ray scattering. Nano Lett. 10, 2863–2869 (2010)
Collins, B.A., Tumbleston, J.R., Ade, H.: Miscibility, crystallinity, and phase development in P3HT/PCBM solar cells: toward an enlightened understanding of device morphology and stability. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2, 3135–3145 (2011)
Collins, B.A., et al.: Absolute measurement of domain composition and nanoscale size distribution explains performance in PTB7:PC71BM solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 3, 65–74 (2013)
Yin, W., Dadmun, M.: A new model for the morphology of P3HT/PCBM organic photovoltaics from small-angle neutron scattering: rivers and streams. ACS Nano 5, 4756–4768 (2011)
Kiel, J.W., Eberle, A.P.R., Mackay, M.E.: Nanoparticle agglomeration in polymer-based solar cells. Phys. Rev. Lett. 105, 168701 (2010)
Søndergaard, R., Hösel, M., Angmo, D., Larsen-Olsen, T.T., Krebs, F.C.: Roll-to-roll fabrication of polymer solar cells. Mater. Today 15, 36–49 (2012)
Darling, S.B., You, F.: The case for organic photovoltaics. RSC Adv. 3, 17633–17648 (2013)
Herndon, A., Pettersson, E.: Thin-film solar panel maker Konarka files for bankruptcy. Bloomberg (2012). at http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-06-02/thin-film-solar-panel-maker-konarka-files-for-bankruptcy.html
Tracy W.: Konarka and arch aluminum and glass announce unique solar curtain wall pilot project. Business Wire (2009). http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20091110005343/en/Konarka-Arch-Aluminum-Glass-Announce-Unique-Solar#.U-JFD_ldV5I
Krebs, F.C., Tromholt, T., Jørgensen, M.: Upscaling of polymer solar cell fabrication using full roll-to-roll processing. Nanoscale 2, 873 (2010)
Krebs, F.C., Fyenbo, J., Jørgensen, M.: Product integration of compact roll-to-roll processed polymer solar cell modules: methods and manufacture using flexographic printing, slot-die coating and rotary screen printing. J. Mater. Chem. 20, 8994 (2010)
Krebs, F.C., et al.: The OE-A OPV demonstrator anno domini 2011. Energy Environ. Sci. 4, 4116 (2011)
Alstrup, J., Jørgensen, M., Medford, A.J., Krebs, F.C.: Ultra fast and parsimonious materials screening for polymer solar cells using differentially pumped slot-die coating. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2, 2819–2827 (2010)
Ball, J.M., Lee, M.M., Hey, A., Snaith, H.J.: Low-temperature processed meso-superstructured to thin-film perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 6, 1739–1743 (2013)
Docampo, P., Ball, J.M., Darwich, M., Eperon, G.E., Snaith, H.J.: Efficient organometal trihalide perovskite planar-heterojunction solar cells on flexible polymer substrates. Nat. Commun. 4 (2013)
Albrecht, S., et al.: On the field dependence of free charge carrier generation and recombination in blends of PCPDTBT/PC70BM: influence of solvent additives. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 3, 640–645 (2012)
Love, J.A., Proctor, C.M., Liu, J., Takacs, C.J., Sharenko, A., van der Poll, T.S., Heeger, A.J., Bazan, G.C., Nguyen, T.-Q.: Film morphology of high efficiency solution-processed small-molecule solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 23 5019 (2013)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
DeLongchamp, D.M. (2016). Organic Photovoltaics. In: Paranthaman, M., Wong-Ng, W., Bhattacharya, R. (eds) Semiconductor Materials for Solar Photovoltaic Cells. Springer Series in Materials Science, vol 218. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20331-7_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20331-7_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-20330-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-20331-7
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)