Abstract
Detailed analyses of cambium activity and wood formation need repeated samplings of the developing xylem and specific procedures for sample preparation. In order to minimize the damage to the stem, wood samples are extracted as microcores. Because of the small size of the samples, inclusion in an embedding medium, such as paraffin, is suggested to adequately fix the samples and to cut the tissues in thin sections with a microtome. Sections are stained and observed under normal and polarized light to identify the cambial region, stages of wood formation (enlargement and cell wall thickening) and mature cells. This procedure allows quantitative data to be obtained quickly to reconstruct timings and patterns of wood formation (duration and rates) in tree species.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Fahn A, Werker E (1990) Seasonal cambial activity. In: Iqbal M (ed) The vascular cambium. Research Studies Press, Taunton, pp 139–157
Fritts HC (1976) Tree rings and climate. Academic, London
Gricar J, Cufar K (2008) Seasonal dynamics of phloem and xylem formation in silver fir and Norway spruce as affected by drought. Rus J Plant Physiol 55:538–543
Cufar K, Cherubini M, Gricar J et al (2011) Xylem and phloem formation in chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) during the 2008 growing season. Dendrochronologia 29:127–134
Forster T, Schweingruber FH, Denneler B (2000) Increment puncher—a tool for extracting small cores of wood and bark from living trees. IAWA J 21:169–180
Rossi S, Anfodillo T, Menardi R (2006) Trephor: a new tool for sampling microcores from tree stems. IAWA J 27:89–97
Seo J-W, Eckstein D, Schmitt U (2007) The pinning method: from pinning to data preparation. Dendrochronologia 25:79–86
Deslauriers A, Morin H, Begin Y (2003) Cellular phenology of annual ring formation of Abies balsamea in Quebec boreal forest (Canada). Can J For Res 33:190–200
Mäkinen H, Nöjd P, Saranpää P (2003) Seasonal changes in stem radius and production of new tracheids in Norway spruce. Tree Physiol 23:959–968
Jyske T, Mäkinen H, Kalliokoski T et al (2014) Intra-annual tracheid production of Norway spruce and scots pine across a latitudinal gradient in Finland. Agric For Meteorol 194:241–254
Cuny HE, Rathgeber CBK, Lebourgeois F et al (2012) Life strategies in intra-annual dynamics of wood formation: example of three conifer species in a temperate forest in north-east France. Tree Physiol 32:612–625
Rossi S, Deslauriers A, Griçar J et al (2008) Critical temperatures for xylogenesis in conifers of cold climates. Global Ecol Biogeog 17:696–707
Deslauriers A, Rossi S, Anfodillo T et al (2008) Cambial phenology, wood formation and temperature thresholds in two contrasting years at high altitude in southern Italy. Tree Physiol 28:863–871
Rossi S, Deslauriers A, Anfodillo T et al (2007) Evidence of threshold temperatures for xylogenesis in conifers at high altitudes. Oecologia 152:1–12
Cufar K, Prislan P, de Luis M et al (2008) Tree-ring variation, wood formation and phenology of beech (Fagus sylvatica) from a representative site in Slovenia, SE Central Europe. Trees 22:749–758
Heinrichs DK, Tardif JC, Bergeron Y (2007) Xylem production in six tree species growing on an island in the boreal forest region of western Quebec, Canada. Can J Bot 85:518–525
Moser L, Fonti P, Buntgen U et al (2010) Timing and duration of European larch growing season along altitudinal gradients in the Swiss Alps. Tree Physiol 30:225–233
Deslauriers A, Beaulieu M, Balducci L et al (2014) Impact of warming and drought on carbon balance related to wood formation in black spruce. Ann Bot 114:335–345
Deslauriers A, Giovannelli A, Rossi S et al (2009) Intra-annual cambial activity and carbon availability in stem of poplar. Tree Physiol 29:1223–1235
Gruber A, Pirkebner D, Florian C et al (2012) No evidence for depletion of carbohydrate pools in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) under drought stress. Plant Biol 14:142–148
Simard S, Giovannelli A, Treydte K et al (2013) Intra-annual dynamics of non-structural carbohydrates in the cambium of mature conifer trees reflects radial growth demands. Tree Physiol 33:913–923
Michelot A, Simard S, Rathgeber C et al (2012) Comparing the intra-annual wood formation of three European species (Fagus sylvatica, Quercus petraea and Pinus sylvestris) as related to leaf phenology and non-structural carbohydrate dynamics. Tree Physiol 32:1033–1045
Lupi C, Morin H, Deslauriers A et al (2012) Xylogenesis in black spruce: does soil temperature matter? Tree Physiol 32:74–82
Gričar J, Čufar K, Oven P et al (2005) Differentiation of terminal latewood tracheids in silver fir trees during autumn. Ann Bot 95:959–965
Gricar J, Zupancic M, Cufar K et al (2006) Effect of local heating and cooling on cambial activity and cell differentiation in the stem of Norway spruce (Picea abies). Ann Bot 97:943–951
Gruber A, Baumgartner D, Zimmermann J et al (2009) Temporal dynamic of wood formation in Pinus cembra along the alpine treeline ecotone and the effect of climate variables. Tree—Struct Funct 23:623–635
Gruber A, Strobl S, Veit B et al (2010) Impact of drought on the temporal dynamics of wood formation in Pinus sylvestris. Tree Physiol 30:490–501
Balducci L, Deslauriers A, Giovannelli A et al (2013) Effects of temperature and water deficit on cambial activity and woody ring features in Picea mariana saplings. Tree Physiol 33:1006–1017
Pasho E, Camarero JJ, Vicente-Serrano SM (2012) Climatic impacts and drought control of radial growth and seasonal wood formation in Pinus halepensis. Tree—Struct Funct 26:1875–1886
Rossi S, Morin H, Deslauriers A et al (2011) Predicting xylem phenology in black spruce under climate warming. Global Change Biol 17:614–625
Rossi S, Girard MJ, Morin H (2014) Lengthening of the duration of xylogenesis engenders disproportionate increases in xylem production. Global Change Biol 20:2261–2271
Lugo JB, Deslauriers A, Rossi S (2012) Duration of xylogenesis in black spruce lengthened between 1950 and 2010. Ann Bot 110:1099–1108
Donaldson LA (1991) Seasonal changes in lignin distribution during tracheid development in Pinus radiata D. Don. Wood Sci Tech 25:15–24
Abe H, Funada R, Ohtani J et al (1997) Changes in the arrangement of cellulose microfibrils associated with the cessation of cell expansion in tracheids. Trees 11:328–332
Thibeault-Martel M, Krause C, Morin H et al (2008) Cambial activity and intra-annual xylem formation in roots and stems of Abies balsamea and Picea mariana. Ann Bot 102:667–674
Anderson G, Bancroft JD (2002) Tissue processing and microtomy including frozen. In: Bancroft JD, Gamble M (eds) Theory and practice of histological techniques. Churchill Livingstone, London, pp 85–107
van der Werf GW, Sass-Klaassen UGW, Mohren GMJ (2007) The impact of the 2003 summer drought on the intra-annual growth pattern of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and oak (Quercus robur L.) on a dry site in the Netherlands. Dendrochronologia 25:103–112
Rossi S, Deslauriers A, Gricar J et al (2008) Critical temperatures for xylogenesis in conifers of clod climates. Glob Ecol Biogeog 17:696–707
Savidge RA (2000) Biochemistry of seasonal cambial growth and wood formation—an overview of the challenges. In: Savidge RA, Barnett JR, Napier R (eds) Cell and molecular biology of wood formation. BIOS Scientific Ltd, Oxford, pp 1–30
Marion L, Gricar J, Oven P (2007) Wood formation in urban Norway maple trees studied by the micro-coring method. Dendrochronologia 25:97–102
Rossi S, Deslauriers A, Anfodillo T et al (2006) Conifers in cold environments synchronize maximum growth rate of tree-ring formation with day length. New Phytol 170:301–310
Vieira J, Rossi S, Campelo F et al (2014) Are neighbouring trees in tune? Eur J Forest Res 133:41–50
de Luis M, Novak K, Raventos J et al (2011) Climate factors promoting intra-annual density fluctuations in Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) from semiarid sites. Dendrochronologia 29:163–169
Camarero JJ, Olano JM, Parras A (2010) Plastic bimodal xylogenesis in conifers from continental Mediterranean climates. New Phytol 185:471–480
Krepkowski J, Brauning A, Gebrekirstos A et al (2011) Cambial growth dynamics and climatic control of different tree life forms in tropical mountain forest in Ethiopia. Trees 25:59–70
Rossi S, Deslauriers A, Morin H (2003) Application of the Gompertz equation for the study of xylem cell development. Dendrochronologia 21:33–39
Cuny HE, Rathgeber CBK, Kiesse TS et al (2013) Generalized additive models reveal the intrinsic complexity of wood formation dynamics. J Exp Bot 64:1983–1994
Rathgeber CBK, Longuetaud F, Mothe F et al (2011) Phenology of wood formation: Data processing, analysis and visualisation using R (package CAVIAR). Dendrochronologia 29:139–149
Cuny HE, Rathgeber CBK, Frank D et al (2014) Kinetics of tracheid development explain conifer tree-ring structure. New Phytol 203:1231–1241
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by grants from Consortium de Recherche sur la Forêt Boréale Commerciale, Fonds de Recherche sur la Nature et les Technologies du Québec, National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Canada Foundation for Innovation, and Forêt dʼEnseignement et de Recherche Simoncouche. The author thanks E. Gallo, R. Menardi, C. Soucy for their technical recommendations and A. Garside for editing the English text.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Deslauriers, A., Rossi, S., Liang, E. (2015). Collecting and Processing Wood Microcores for Monitoring Xylogenesis. In: Yeung, E., Stasolla, C., Sumner, M., Huang, B. (eds) Plant Microtechniques and Protocols. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19944-3_23
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19944-3_23
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-19943-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-19944-3
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)