Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Thyroid Nodules and Carcinoma

  • Chapter
Thyroid Diseases in Childhood

Abstract

Thyroid nodules in children are rare: cancer is detected in up to 25 % of cases and is usually well differentiated. The diagnostic approach is based on a first-step clinical, laboratory, and sonographic evaluation. Patient and family history, clinical exam, and thyroid ultrasound provide diagnostic clues and are used to estimate the risk of malignancy to decide to proceed to further evaluation by fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB), the gold standard to select nodule candidates for surgery. It is important to discriminate benign and malignant lesions preoperatively as in the latter case total thyroidectomy is indicated, with neck lymph node dissection in some circumstances. Thyroid scintiscan is almost only used in the rare cases of hyperthyroidism, aiming at confirming the diagnosis of adenoma. In spite of the lack of data in pediatric age due to the rarity of the disease, this review tries to summarize the evidence on diagnosis and treatment of thyroid nodules in childhood, critically reviewing adult guidelines and commenting on the most recent and promising diagnostic techniques and therapeutic options in the field.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

AD:

Autosomal Dominant

AR:

Autosomal Recessive

ATA:

American Thyroid Association

ATC:

Anaplastic/undifferentiated thyroid carcinoma

CEA:

Carcinoembrionary Antigen

DTC:

Differentiated Thyroid Carcinoma

FNAB:

Fine-Needle Aspiration Biopsy

FTC:

Follicular Thyroid Carcinoma

MEN:

Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia

MTC:

Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma

PTC:

Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma

RAI:

Radioactive Iodine

rhTSH:

Recombinant Human TSH

THW:

Thyroid Hormone Withdrawal

References

  1. Dean DS, Gharib H (2008) Epidemiology of thyroid nodules. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 22:901–911

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Rallison ML, Dobyns BM, Keating FR Jr, Rall JE, Tyler FH (1975) Thyroid nodularity in children. JAMA 233:1069–1072

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Corrias A, Mussa A, Baronio F et al (2010) Diagnostic features of thyroid nodules in pediatrics. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 164:714–719

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Niedziela M (2006) Pathogenesis, diagnosis and management of thyroid nodules in children. Endocr Relat Cancer 13:427–453

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Aghini-Lombardi F, Antonangeli L, Martino E et al (1999) The spectrum of thyroid disorders in an iodine-deficient community: the Pescopagano survey. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84:561–566

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Wang C, Crapo LM (1997) The epidemiology of thyroid disease and implications for screening. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 26:189–218

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Niedziela M (2014) Thyroid nodules. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 28:245–277

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Dinauer CA, Breuer C, Rivkees SA (2008) Differentiated thyroid cancer in children: diagnosis and management. Curr Opin Oncol 20:59–65

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Cooper DS, Doherty GM, Haugen BR et al (2009) American Thyroid Association (ATA) guidelines taskforce on thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Revised American Thyroid Association management guidelines for patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid 19:1167–1214

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Gupta A, Ly S, Castroneves LA et al (2013) A standardized assessment of thyroid nodules in children confirms higher cancer prevalence than in adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98:3238–3245

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Halac I, Zimmerman D (2005) Thyroid nodules and cancers in children. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 34:725–744

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. WHO Classification of Tumours (2004) Patholgy and genetics. In: DeLellis AR, Lloyd RV, Heitz PU, Eng C (eds) Tumours of endocrine organs. IARC Press, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  13. Rosai J, Tallini G (2011) Thyroid gland. In: Rosai J, Ackerman S (eds) Rosai and Ackerman’s surgical pathology, 10th edn. Elsevier-Mosby, Edinburgh, pp 487–564

    Google Scholar 

  14. Rivkees SA, Mazzaferri EL, Verburg FA (2011) The treatment of differentiated thyroid cancer in children: emphasis on surgical approach and radioactive iodine therapy. Endocr Rev 32:798–826

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Hung W, Sarlis NJ (2002) Current controversies in the management of pediatric patients with well-differentiated nonmedullary thyroid cancer: a review. Thyroid 12:683–702

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Böttcher Y, Eszlinger M, Tönjes A, Paschke R (2005) The genetics of euthyroid familial goiter. Trends Endocrinol Metab 16:314–319

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Youn SY, Lee JH, Chang YW, Lee DH (2014) Characteristics of thyroid nodules in infant with congenital hypothyroidism. Korean J Pediatr 57:85–90

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. O’Gorman CS, Hamilton J, Rachmiel M, Gupta A, Ngan BY, Daneman D (2010) Thyroid cancer in childhood: a retrospective review of childhood course. Thyroid 20:375–380

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Mussa A, Matarazzo P, Corrias A (2014) Papillary thyroid cancer and autoimmune polyglandular syndrome. J Pediatr Endocr Metab, doi:10.1515/jpem-2014-0268 (in press)

  20. Jankovic B, Le KT, Hershman JM (2013) Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and papillary thyroid carcinoma: is there a correlation? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98:474–482

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Corrias A, Cassio A, Weber G et al (2008) Thyroid nodules and cancer in children and adolescents affected by autoimmune thyroiditis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 162:526–531

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Boelaert K, Horacek J, Holder RL, Watkinson JC, Sheppard MC, Franklyn JA (2006) Serum thyrotropin concentration as a novel predictor of malignancy in thyroid nodules investigated by fine-needle aspiration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:4295–4301

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Fiore E, Vitti P (2012) Serum TSH and risk of papillary thyroid cancer in nodular thyroid disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97:1134–1145

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Chiu HK, Sanda S, Fechner PY, Pihoker C (2012) Correlation of TSH with the risk of paediatric thyroid carcinoma. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 77:316–322

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Mussa A, Salerno MC, Bona G (2013) Serum thyrotropin concentration in children with isolated thyroid nodules. J Pediatr 163:1465–1470

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Wasniewska M, Salerno M, Cassio A et al (2009) Prospective evaluation of the natural course of idiopathic subclinical hypothyroidism in childhood and adolescence. Eur J Endocrinol 160:417–421

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Sigurdson A, Ronckers C, Mertens A et al (2005) Primary thyroid cancer after a first tumour in childhood (the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study): a nested case–control study. Lancet 365:2014–2023

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Duffy BJ Jr, Fitzgerald PJ (1950) Thyroid cancer in childhood and adolescence; a report on 28 cases. Cancer 3:1018–1032

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Rabes HM, Demidchik EP, Sidorow JD et al (2000) Pattern of radiation-induced RET and NTRK1 rearrangements in 191 post-chernobyl papillary thyroid carcinomas: biological, phenotypic, and clinical implications. Clin Cancer Res 6:1093–1103

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Pacini F, Vorontsova T, Demidchik EP et al (1997) Post-Chernobyl thyroid carcinoma in Belarus children and adolescents: comparison with naturally occurring thyroid carcinoma in Italy and France. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:3563–3569

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Nikiforov Y, Gnepp DR (1994) Pediatric thyroid cancer after the Chernobyl disaster. Pathomorphologic study of 84 cases (1991–1992) from the Republic of Belarus. Cancer 74:748–766

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Brignardello E, Corrias A, Isolato G et al (2008) Ultrasound screening for thyroid carcinoma in childhood cancer survivors: a case series. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:4840–4843

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Ron E, Lubin JH, Shore RE et al (1995) Thyroid cancer after exposure to external radiation: a pooled analysis of seven studies. Radiat Res 141:259–277

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Acharya S, Sarafoglou K, LaQuaglia M et al (2003) Thyroid neoplasms after therapeutic radiation for malignancies during childhood or adolescence. Cancer 97:2397–2403

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Sinnott B, Ron E, Schneider AB (2010) Exposing the thyroid to radiation: a review of its current extent, risks, and implications. Endocr Rev 31:756–773

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Massoll N, Mazzaferri EL (2004) Diagnosis and management of medullary thyroid carcinoma. Clin Lab Med 24:49–83

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Raue F, Frank-Raue K (2007) Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2: 2007 update. Horm Res 68(Suppl 5):101–104

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Eng C, Clayton D, Schuffenecker I et al (1996) The relationship between specific RET proto-oncogene mutations and disease phenotype in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2. International RET mutation consortium analysis. JAMA 276:1575–1579

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Learoyd DL, Marsh DJ, Richardson AL, Twigg SM, Delbridge L, Robinson BG (1997) Genetic testing for familial cancer. Consequences of RET proto-oncogene mutation analysis in multiple endocrine neoplasia, type 2. Arch Surg 132:1022–1025

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Yamashita S, Saenko V (2007) Mechanisms of disease: molecular genetics of childhood thyroid cancers. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 3:422–429

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Collins BJ, Chiappetta G, Schneider AB et al (2002) RET expression in papillary thyroid cancer from patients irradiated in childhood for benign conditions. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:3941–3946

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Damiola F, Byrnes G, Moissonnier M et al (2014) Contribution of ATM and FOXE1 (TTF2) to risk of papillary thyroid carcinoma in Belarusian children exposed to radiation. Int J Cancer 134:1659–1668

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Vriens MR, Suh I, Moses W, Kebebew E (2009) Clinical features and genetic predisposition to hereditary nonmedullary thyroid cancer. Thyroid 19:1343–1349

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Harach HR, Soubeyran I, Brown A, Bonneau D, Longy M (1999) Thyroid pathologic findings in patients with Cowden disease. Ann Diagn Pathol 3:331–340

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Pilarski R, Burt R, Kohlman W, Pho L, Shannon KM, Swisher E (2013) Cowden syndrome and the PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome: systematic review and revised diagnostic criteria. J Natl Cancer Inst 105:1607–1616

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Peiretti V, Mussa A, Feyles F (2013) Thyroid involvement in two patients with Bannayan-Riley-Ruvalcaba syndrome. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol 5:261–265

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Steinhagen E, Guillem JG, Chang G et al (2012) The prevalence of thyroid cancer and benign thyroid disease in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis may be higher than previously recognized. Clin Colorectal Cancer 11:304–308

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Forlino A, Vetro A, Garavelli L et al (2014) PRKACB and Carney complex. N Engl J Med 13(370):1065–1067

    Google Scholar 

  49. Triggiani V, Guastamacchia E, Renzulli G (2011) Papillary thyroid carcinoma in Peutz-Jeghers syndrome. Thyroid 21:1273–1277

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Beggs AD, Latchford AR, Vasen HF et al (2010) Peutz-Jeghers syndrome: a systematic review and recommendations for management. Gut 59:975–986

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Wells SA Jr, Pacini F, Robinson BG, Santoro M (2013) Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 and familial medullary thyroid carcinoma: an update. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98:3149–3164

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Slade I, Bacchelli C, Davies H (2011) DICER1 syndrome: clarifying the diagnosis, clinical features and management implications of a pleiotropic tumour predisposition syndrome. J Med Genet 48:273–278

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Collins MT, Singer FR, Eugster E (2012) McCune-Albright syndrome and the extraskeletal manifestations of fibrous dysplasia. Orphanet J Rare Dis 7(Suppl 1):S4

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Tessaris D, Corrias A, Matarazzo P, De Sanctis L, Wasniewska M, Messina MF, Vigone MC, Lala R (2012) Thyroid abnormalities in children and adolescents with McCune-Albright syndrome. Horm Res Paediatr 78:151–157

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Congedo V, Celi FS (2007) Thyroid disease in patients with McCune-Albright syndrome. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev 4(Suppl 4):429–433

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Kluger N, Giraud S, Coupier I et al (2010) Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome: clinical and genetic studies of 10 French families. Br J Dermatol 162:527–537

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Lauper JM, Krause A, Vaughan TL, Monnat RJ Jr (2013) Spectrum and risk of neoplasia in Werner syndrome: a systematic review. PLoS One 8:e59709

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Corrias A, Mussa A (2013) Thyroid nodules in pediatrics: which ones can be left alone, which ones must be investigated, when and how. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol 5(Suppl 1):57–69

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Brink JS, van Heerden JA, McIver B et al (2000) Papillary thyroid cancer with pulmonary metastases in children: long-term prognosis. Surgery 128:881–887

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Corrias A, Einaudi S, Chiorboli E et al (2001) Accuracy of fine needle aspiration biopsy of thyroid nodules in detecting malignancy in childhood: comparison with conventional clinical, laboratory, and imaging approaches. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:4644–4648

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Viswanathan K, Gierlowski TC, Schneider AB (1994) Childhood thyroid cancer. Characteristics and long-term outcome in children irradiated for benign conditions of the head and neck. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 148:260–265

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Lugo-Vicente H, Romero-Estremera NJ (2012) Thyroid nodules in children: what should be a minimal work-up preceding surgery? Bol Asoc Med P R 104:33–36

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Deftos LJ (2004) Should serum calcitonin be routinely measured in patients with thyroid nodules–will the law answer before endocrinologists do? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:4768–4769

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Elisei R (2008) Routine serum calcitonin measurement in the evaluation of thyroid nodules. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 22:941–953

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Massaro F, Dolcino M, Degrandi R et al (2009) Calcitonin assay in wash-out fluid after fine-needle aspiration biopsy in patients with a thyroid nodule and border-line value of the hormone. J Endocrinol Invest 32:308–312

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Kudo T, Miyauchi A, Ito Y, Takamura Y, Amino N, Hirokawa M (2007) Diagnosis of medullary thyroid carcinoma by calcitonin measurement in fine-needle aspiration biopsy specimens. Thyroid 17:635–638

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Chang YW, Hong HS, Choi DL (2009) Sonography of the pediatric thyroid: a pictorial essay. J Clin Ultrasound 37:149–157

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Andrioli M, Persani L (2014) Elastographic techniques of thyroid gland: current status. Endocrine 46:455–461

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Sun J, Cai J, Wang X (2014) Real-time ultrasound elastography for differentiation of benign and malignant thyroid nodules: a meta-analysis. J Ultrasound Med 33:495–502

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Rago T, Vitti P (2008) Role of thyroid ultrasound in the diagnostic evaluation of thyroid nodules. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 22:913–928

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Rago T, Scutari M, Santini F et al (2010) Real-time elastosonography: useful tool for refining the presurgical diagnosis in thyroid nodules with indeterminate or nondiagnostic cytology. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:5274–5280

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Magri F, Chytiris S, Capelli V (2013) Comparison of elastographic strain index and thyroid fine-needle aspiration cytology in 631 thyroid nodules. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98:4790–4797

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Kapila K, Pathan SK, George SS, Haji BE, Das DK, Qadan LR (2010) Fine needle aspiration cytology of the thyroid in children and adolescents: experience with 792 aspirates. Acta Cytol 54:569–574

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Stevens C, Lee JK, Sadatsafavi M, Blair GK (2009) Pediatric thyroid fine-needle aspiration cytology: a meta-analysis. J Pediatr Surg 44:2184–2191

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Vasudev V, Hemalatha AL, Rakhi B, Githanjali S (2014) Efficacy and pitfalls of FNAC of thyroid lesions in children and adolescents. J Clin Diagn Res 8:35–38

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Gutman P, Henry M (1998) Fine needle aspiration cytology of the thyroid. Clin Lab Med 18:461–482

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Papini E, Guglielmi R, Bianchini A et al (2002) Risk of malignancy in nonpalpable thyroid nodules: predictive value of ultrasound and color-Doppler features. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:1941–1946

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Gandolfi PP, Frisina A, Raffa M et al (2004) The incidence of thyroid carcinoma in multinodular goiter: retrospective analysis. Acta Biomed 75:114–117

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Mijović T, Rochon L, Gologan O et al (2009) Fine-needle aspiration biopsies in the management of indeterminate follicular and Hurthle cell thyroid lesions. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 140:715–719

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Deandrea M, Ragazzoni F, Motta M (2010) Diagnostic value of a cytomorphological subclassification of follicular patterned thyroid lesions: a study of 927 consecutive cases with histological correlation. Thyroid 20:1077–1083

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Baloch ZW, LiVolsi VA, Asa SL et al (2008) Diagnostic terminology and morphologic criteria for cytologic diagnosis of thyroid lesions: a synopsis of the National Cancer Institute Thyroid Fine-Needle Aspiration State of the Science Conference. Diagn Cytopathol 36:425–437

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Cibas ES, Ali SZ (2009) NCI Thyroid FNA State of the Science Conference. The Bethesda System for reporting thyroid cytopathology. Am J Clin Pathol 132:658–665

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Saggiorato E, De Pompa R, Volante M et al (2005) Characterization of thyroid ‘follicular neoplasms’ in fine-needle aspiration cytological specimens using a panel of immunohistochemical markers: a proposal for clinical application. Endocr Relat Cancer 12:305–317

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Raggio E, Camandona M, Solerio D et al (2009) The diagnostic accuracy of the immunocytochemical markers in the preoperative evaluation of follicular thyroid lesions. J Endocrinol Invest 33:378–381

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Guerra LN, Miler EA, Moiguer S et al (2006) Telomerase activity in fine needle aspiration biopsy samples: application to diagnosis of human thyroid carcinoma. Clin Chim Acta 370:180–184

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Bartolazzi A, Orlandi F, Saggiorato E et al (2008) Galectin-3-expression analysis in the surgical selection of follicular thyroid nodules with indeterminate fine-needle aspiration cytology: a prospective multicentre study. Lancet Oncol 9:543–549

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Matesa N, Samija I, Kusić Z (2007) Galectin-3 and CD44v6 positivity by RT-PCR method in fine needle aspirates of benign thyroid lesions. Cytopathology 18:112–116

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Khan A, Smellie J, Nutting C et al (2010) Familial nonmedullary thyroid cancer: a review of the genetics. Thyroid 20:795–801

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Orlandi A, Puscar A, Capriata E, Fideleff H (2005) Repeated fine-needle aspiration of the thyroid in benign nodular thyroid disease: critical evaluation of long-term follow-up. Thyroid 15:274–278

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Corrias A, Mussa A, Wasniewska M et al (2011) Levothyroxine treatment in pediatric benign thyroid nodules. Horm Res Paediatr 75:246–251

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Wasniewska M, Corrias A, Aversa T et al (2012) Comparative evaluation of therapy with L-thyroxine versus no treatment in children with idiopathic and mild subclinical hypothyroidism. Horm Res Paediatr 77:376–381

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Gharib H, Hegedüs L, Pacella CM, Baek JH, Papini E (2013) Nonsurgical, image-guided, minimally invasive therapy for thyroid nodules. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98:3949–3957

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Fuller CW, Nguyen SA, Lohia S, Gillespie MB (2014) Radiofrequency ablation for treatment of benign thyroid nodules: systematic review. Laryngoscope 124:346–353

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Rapkin L, Pashankar FD (2012) Management of thyroid carcinoma in children and young adults. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 34:S39–S46

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Bargren AE, Meyer-Rochow GY, Delbridge LW, Sidhu SB, Chen H (2009) Outcomes of surgically managed pediatric thyroid cancer. J Surg Res 156:70–73

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Cobin RH, Gharib H, Bergman DA et al (2001) AACE/AAES medical/surgical guidelines for clinical practice: management of thyroid carcinoma. Endocr Pract 7:203–220

    Google Scholar 

  97. Enomoto Y, Enomoto K, Uchino S, Shibuya H, Watanabe S, Noguchi S (2012) Clinical features, treatment, and long-term outcome of papillary thyroid cancer in children and adolescents without radiation exposure. World J Surg 36:1241–1246

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Sippel RS, Kunnimalaiyaan M, Chen H (2008) Current management of medullary thyroid cancer. Oncologist 13:539–547

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Kloos RT, Eng C, Evans DB et al (2009) Medullary thyroid cancer: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid 19:565–612

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Seidlin SM, Oshry E, Yalow AA (1948) Spontaneous and experimentally induced uptake of radioactive iodine in metastases from thyroid carcinoma; a preliminary report. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 8:423–432

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Pawelczak M, David R, Franklin B, Kessler M, Lam L, Shah B (2010) Outcomes of children and adolescents with well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma and pulmonary metastases following 131I treatment: a systematic review. Thyroid 20:1095–1101

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Markovina S, Grigsby PW, Schwarz JK et al (2013) Treatment approach, surveillance and outcome of well-differentiated thyroid cancer in childhood and adolescence. Thyroid 4:1121–1126

    Google Scholar 

  103. Luster M, Handkiewicz-Junak D, Grossi A et al (2009) Recombinant thyrotropin use in children and adolescents with differentiated thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:3948–3953

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Verburg FA, Biko J, Diessl S et al (2011) I-131 activities as high as safely administrable (AHASA) for the treatment of children and adolescents with advanced differentiated thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:1268–1271

    Google Scholar 

  105. Pacini F, Castagna MG, Brilli L et al (2010) Thyroid cancer: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol 21(Suppl 5):214–219

    Google Scholar 

  106. Spencer C, Fatemi S, Singer P, Nicoloff J, Lopresti J (2010) Serum Basal thyroglobulin measured by a second-generation assay correlates with the recombinant human thyrotropin-stimulated thyroglobulin response in patients treated for differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid 20:587–595

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Chao M (2010) Management of differentiated thyroid cancer with rising thyroglobulin and negative diagnostic radioiodine whole body scan. Clin Oncol 22:438–447

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Heston TF, Wahl RL (2010) Molecular imaging in thyroid cancer. Cancer Imaging 10:1–7

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Rachmiel M, Charron M, Gupta A, Hamilton J, Wherrett D, Forte V, Daneman D (2006) Evidence-based review of treatment and follow up of pediatric patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 19:1377–1393

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Reiners C, Demidchik YE, Drozd VM, Biko J (2012) Thyroid cancer in infants and adolescents after Chernobyl. Accessed online on 18 Aug 2014 at http://belmapo.by/downloads/oncology/2012/thyroid_cancer_in_infants.pdf

  111. Zimmerman D, Hay ID, Gough IR, Goellner JR, Ryan JJ, Grant CS, McConahey WM (1988) Papillary thyroid carcinoma in children and adults: long-term follow-up of 1039 patients conservatively treated at one institution during three decades. Surgery 104:1157–1061

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics and Public Health, University of Torino, Regina Margherita Children’s Hospital, Piazza Polonia 94, Torino, 10126, Italy

    Andrea Corrias & Alessandro Mussa

  2. Unit of Endocrinology, Department University-Hospital, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital IRCCS, p.zza S. Onofrio 4, Rome, 00165, Italy

    Armando Grossi & Marco Cappa

Authors
  1. Andrea Corrias
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Alessandro Mussa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Armando Grossi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Marco Cappa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Andrea Corrias .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Novara, Italy

    Gianni Bona

  2. Messina, Italy

    Filippo De Luca

  3. Division of Pediatrics, Piedemonte Hospital, Novara, Italy

    Alice Monzani

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Corrias, A., Mussa, A., Grossi, A., Cappa, M. (2015). Thyroid Nodules and Carcinoma. In: Bona, G., De Luca, F., Monzani, A. (eds) Thyroid Diseases in Childhood. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19213-0_15

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19213-0_15

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-19212-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-19213-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation