Abstract
The megafauna (Greek μεγα: great; Latin fauna: animal life) of Antarctica is defined by absence. Two classes of vertebrates, reptiles and amphibians, are missing from the continent and its surrounding waters, and Antarctica has lacked true land vertebrates since dinosaurs last roamed the continent in the late Cretaceous. The ocean is the foundation of all vertebrate life in Antarctica, and none of its native birds and mammals can survive permanently in the continent’s frigid, white interior. Antarctic vertebrates are all classified as marine and ultimately derive their food from the sea. Unlike in much of the Arctic, the harsher climate of Antarctica does not allow for significant plant growth, and no vertebrate herbivores exist. Antarctica’s long isolation from other landmasses has resulted in the absence of surface predators such as the polar fox Alopex lagopus or polar bear Ursus maritimus, an important distinction between Antarctic and Arctic habitats. Antarctica and the Southern Ocean present some of the most challenging environmental conditions on Earth, including extreme cold, wind, dryness, radical seasonal changes in photoperiod, and extensive ice cover. But Antarctica also offers tremendous opportunity because it is a continent free of terrestrial mammalian predators, and the Southern Ocean surrounding the Antarctic continent includes some of the most productive marine habitats in the world.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Agnarsson I, May-Collado LJ (2008) The phylogeny of Cetartiodactyla: the importance of dense taxon sampling, missing data, and the remarkable promise of cytochrome b to provide reliable species-level phylogenies. Mol Phylogenet Evol 48:964–985
Ainley DG, Siniff DB (2009) The importance of Antarctic toothfish as prey of Weddell seals in the Ross Sea. Antarct Sci 21:317–327
Ainley DG et al (2003) Spatial and temporal variation of diet within a presumed metapopulation of Adelie Penguins. Condor 105:95–106
Ainley DG, Dugger KM, Toniolo V, Gaffney I (2007) Cetacean occurrence patterns in the Amundsen and southern Bellingshausen sea sector, Southern Ocean. Mar Mamm Sci 23:287–305
Ainley DG, Ballard G, Olmastroni S (2009) An apparent decrease in the prevalence of “Ross Sea killer whales” in the Southern Ross Sea. Aquat Mamm 35:335–347
Ainley D et al (2010) Impacts of cetaceans on the structure of Southern Ocean food webs. Mar Mamm Sci 26:482–498
Ancel A, Visser H, Handrich Y, Masman D, Le Maho Y (1997) Energy saving in huddling penguins. Nature 385:304–305
Andrews-Goff V, Hindell M, Patterson T, Charrassin J (2010) In 4th SCAR Open Science conference CD-ROM Abstract number 28, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Anon. (2011) Songs from the sea. Science 332:1134
Arnould JPY, Boyd IL, Rawlins DR, Hindell MA (2001) Variation in maternal provisioning by lactating Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella): response to experimental manipulation in pup demand. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 50:461–466
Au WWL (2008) Echolocation. In: Perrin WF, Würsig BG, Thewissen JGM (eds) Encyclopedia of marine mammals. Academic, San Diego, pp 348–357
Baker SC, Barbraud C (2001) Food of the south polar skua Catharacta maccormicki at Ardery Island, Windmill Islands, Antarctica. Polar Biol 24:59–61
Baker CS et al (2010) Genetic evidence of illegal trade in protected whales links Japan with the US and South Korea. Biol Lett 6:647–650
Bannister JL (2008) Baleen whales (mysticetes). In: Perrin WF, Würsig BG, Thewissen JGM (eds) Encyclopedia of marine mammals. Academic, San Diego, pp 80–89
Beatty BL, Rothschild BM (2008) Decompression syndrome and the evolution of deep diving physiology in the Cetacea. Naturwissenschaften 95:793–801
Bennett KA, McConnell BJ, Fedak MA (2001) Diurnal and seasonal variations in the duration and depth of the longest dives in southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina): possible physiological and behavioural constraints. J Exp Biol 204:649–662
Berta A, Sumich J, Kovacs KM (2006) Marine mammals: evolutionary biology, 2nd edn. Academic, San Diego
Blix AS, Nordøy ES (2007) Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossii) annual distribution, diving behaviour, breeding and moulting, off Queen Maud Land, Antarctica. Polar Biol 30:1449–1458
Blix AS, Steen JB (1979) Temperature regulation in newborn polar homeotherms. Physiol Rev 59:285–304
Blix AS, Grav HJ, Ronald K (1975) Brown adipose tissue and the significance of the venous plexuses in pinnipeds. Acta Physiol Scand 94:133–135
Blix AS, Grav HJ, Ronald K (1979) Some aspects of temperature regulation in newborn harp seal pups. Am J Physiol 236:R188–R197
Blix AS, Walloe L, Messelt EB, Folkow LP (2010) Selective brain cooling and its vascular basis in diving seals. J Exp Biol 213(15):2610–2616
Boersma PD (2008) Penguins as marine sentinels. Bioscience 58:597–607
Boily P (1995) Theoretical heat flux in water and habitat selection of phocid seals and beluga whales during the annual molt. J Theor Biol 172:235–244
Boness DJ, Bowen WD (1996) The evolution of maternal care in Pinnipeds. Bioscience 46:645–654
Bornemann H et al (2000) Southern elephant seal movements and Antarctic sea ice. Antarct Sci 12:3–15
Bost CA, Charrassin JB, Clerquin Y, Ropert-Coudert Y, Le Maho Y (2004) Exploitation of distant marginal ice zones by king penguins during winter. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 283:293–297
Bost CA et al (2009) The importance of oceanographic fronts to marine birds and mammals of the southern oceans. J Mar Syst 78:363–376
Boyd IL (1999) Foraging and provisioning in Antarctic fur seals. Behav Ecol 10:198–208
Boyd IL (2008) Antarctic marine mammals. In: Perrin WF, Würsig BG, Thewissen JGM (eds) Encyclopedia of marine mammals. Academic, San Diego, pp 42–46
Branch TA et al (2007) Past and present distribution, densities and movements of blue whales Balaenoptera musculus in the Southern Hemisphere and northern Indian Ocean. Mammal Rev 37:116–175
Brooke MD, Keith D, Rov N (1999) Exploitation of inland-breeding Antarctic petrels by south polar skuas. Oecologia 121:25–31
Bucher TL, Bartholomew GA, Trivelpiece WZ, Volkman NJ (1986) Metabolism, growth, and activity in Adélie and emperor penguin embryos. Auk 103:485–493
Burns JM, Kooyman GL (2001) Habitat use by Weddell seals and emperor penguins foraging in the Ross Sea, Antarctica. Am Zool 41:90–98
Carlini AR et al (2004) Lactation costs in southern elephant seals at King George Island, South Shetland Islands. Polar Biol 27:266–276
Casaux R, Barrera-Oro E (2006) Shags in Antarctica: their feeding behaviour and ecological role in the marine food web. Antarct Sci 18:3–14
Casaux R, Baroni A, Arrighetti F, Ramón A, Carlini A (2003) Geographical variation in the diet of the Antarctic fur seal Arctocephalus gazella. Polar Biol 26:753–758
Casaux R et al (2009a) Diet of the Leopard seal Hydrurga leptonyx at the Danco Coast, Antarctic Peninsula. Polar Biol 32:307–310
Casaux R, Carlini A, Corbalán A, Bertolin L, DiPrinzio CY (2009b) The diet of the Weddell seal Leptonychotes weddellii at Laurie Island, South Orkney Islands. Polar Biol 32:833–838
Chaffee RRJ, Roberts JC (1971) Temperature acclimation in birds and mammals. Annu Rev Physiol 33:155–202
Charbonnier Y, Delord K, Thiebot JB (2010) King-size fast food for Antarctic fur seals. Polar Biol 33:721–724
Cherel Y, Charrassin J-B, Handrich Y (1993) Comparison of body reserve buildup in prefasting chicks and adults of king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus). Physiol Zool 66:750–770
Cherry-Garrard A (2010) The worst journey in the world. Vintage Books, London
Clapham PJ, Baker SC (2008) Modern whaling. In: Perrin WF, Würsig BG, Thewissen JGM (eds) Encyclopedia of marine mammals. Academic, San Diego, pp 1239–1243
Cobley ND, Bell G (1998) Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii) feeding on gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua). Mar Mamm Sci 14:881–883
Corkeron PJ, Connor RC (1999) Why do baleen whales migrate? Mar Mamm Sci 15:1228–1245
Costa DP, Trillmich F (1988) Mass changes and metabolism during the perinatal fast: a comparison between Antarctic (Arctocephalus gazella) and Galápagos fur seals (Arctocephalus galapagoensis). Physiol Zool 61:160–169
Croxall J, Hiby L (1983) Fecundity, survival and site fidelity in Weddell seals, Leptonychotes weddelli. J Appl Ecol 20:19–32
Croxall JP, Prince PA (1996) Cephalopods as prey. 1. Seabirds. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B 351:1023–1043
Cuendet GS, Loten EG, Cameron DP, Renold AE, Marliss EB (1975) Hormone-substrate responses to total fasting in lean and obese mice. Am J Physiol 228:276–283
Culik BM et al (1996) Diving energetics in king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus). J Exp Biol 199:973–983
Davies WL (1939) The composition of the crop milk of pigeons. Biochem J 33:898–901
Dearborn JH (1965) Food of Weddell seals at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. J Mammal 46:37–43
Eisert R, Oftedal OT (2009) Capital expenditure and income (foraging) during pinniped lactation: the example of the Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii). In: Krupnik I, Lang MA, Miller SE (eds) Smithsonian at the poles: contributions to international polar year science – a Smithsonian contribution to knowledge. Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, pp 335–346
Eisert R et al (2005) Detection of food intake in a marine mammal using marine osmolytes and their analogues as dietary biomarkers. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 300:213–228
Elia M, Stubbs RJ, Henry CJK (1999) Differences in fat, carbohydrate, and protein metabolism between lean and obese subjects undergoing total starvation. Obes Res 7:597–604
Encounters at the End of the World. Directed by Herzog, W. Discovery Films, 2008
Erdmann ES, Ribic CA, Patterson-Fraser DL, Fraser WR (2011) Characterization of winter foraging locations of Adélie penguins along the Western Antarctic Peninsula, 2001–2002. Deep-Sea Res Part II-Top Stud Oceanogr 58:1710–1718
Falke K et al (1985) Seal lungs collapse during free diving: evidence from arterial nitrogen tensions. Science 229:556–558
Francis D (1990) A history of world whaling. Penguin, New York
Gauthier-Clerc M, Maho YL, Clerquin Y, Bost C-A, Handrich Y (2002) Seabird reproduction in an unpredictable environment: how King penguins provide their young chicks with food. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 237:291–300
Gelatt TS, Davis CS, Siniff DB, Strobeck C (2001) Molecular evidence for twinning in Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii). J Mammal 82:491–499
Gelatt TS et al (2010) History and fate of a small isolated population of Weddell seals at White Island, Antarctica. Conserv Genet 11:721–735
Gilbert C, Robertson G, Le Maho Y, Naito Y, Ancel A (2006) Huddling behavior in emperor penguins: dynamics of huddling. Physiol Behav 88:479–488
Gilbert C, Blanc S, Le Maho Y, Ancel A (2008) Energy saving processes in huddling emperor penguins: from experiments to theory. J Exp Biol 211:1–8
Gill PC, Thiele D (1997) A winter sighting of killer whales (Orcinus orca) in Antarctic sea ice. Polar Biol 17:401–404
Goodman MN, Lowell B, Belur E, Ruderman NB (1984) Sites of protein conservation and loss during starvation: influence of adiposity. Am J Physiol 246:E383–E390
Hahn S, Ritz MS, Reinhardt K (2008) Marine foraging and annual fish consumption of a south polar skua population in the maritime Antarctic. Polar Biol 31:959–969
Hall-Aspland SA, Rogers TL (2004) Summer diet of leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) in Prydz Bay, Eastern Antarctica. Polar Biol 27:729–734
Halpern BS et al (2008) A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems. Science 319:948–952
Handrich Y (1989a) Incubation water loss in king penguin egg. II. Does the brood patch interfere with eggshell conductance? Physiol Zool 62:119–132
Handrich Y (1989b) Incubation water loss in king penguin egg. I. Change in egg and brood pouch parameters. Physiol Zool 62:96–118
Heyning JE, Mead JG (1996) Suction feeding in beaked whales: morphological and observational evidence, vol 464 in Contributions in Science, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, pp 1–12
Heyning JE, Mead JG (1997) Thermoregulation in the mouths of feeding gray whales. Science 278:1138–1140
Hillenius WJ (1994) Turbinates in therapsids: evidence for Late Permian origins of mammalian endothermy. Evolution 48:207–229
Hodum PJ, Weathers WW (2003) Energetics of nestling growth and parental effort in Antarctic fulmarine petrels. J Exp Biol 206:2125–2133
Hooker SK (2008) Toothed whales, overview. In: Perrin WF, Würsig BG, Thewissen JGM (eds) Encyclopedia of marine mammals. Academic, San Diego, pp 1173–1179
Integrated Taxonomic Information System on-line database. http://www.itis.gov
Irving L, Krog J (1955) Temperature of skin in the Arctic as a regulator of heat. J Appl Physiol 7:355–364
Janes DN (1997) Energetics, growth, and body composition of Adélie penguin chicks, Pygoscelis adeliae. Physiol Zool 70:237–243
Jepson PD et al (2003) Gas-bubble lesions in stranded cetaceans. Nature 425:575–576
Kasamatsu F, Joyce GG (1995) Current status of odontocetes in the Antarctic. Antarct Sci 7:365–379
Kgwatalala PM, Nielsen MK (2004) Performance of mouse lines divergently selected for heat loss when exposed to different environmental temperatures. II. Feed intake, growth, fatness, and body organs 1. J Anim Sci 82:2884–2891
Knudsen GM, Mørk S, Øen EO (2002) A novel method for in situ fixation of whale brains. J Neurosci Methods 120:35–44
Kooyman MM, Kooyman GL (2009) The history of pinniped studies in Antarctica. Aquat Mamm 35:523–556
Kooyman GL, Ponganis PJ (1998) The physiological basis of diving to depth: birds and mammals. Annu Rev Physiol 60:19–32
Kvadsheim PH, Folkow LP (1997) Blubber and flipper heat transfer in harp seals. Acta Physiol Scand 161:385–395
Laws RM (1977) Seals and whales of the Southern Ocean. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 279:81–96
Laws RM, Baird A, Bryden MM (2003) Breeding season and embryonic diapause in crabeater seals (Lobodon carcinophaga). Reproduction 126:365–370
Le Bohec C, Gauthier-Clerc M, Le Maho Y (2005) The adaptive significance of crèches in the king penguin. Anim Behav 70:527–538
Le Maho Y, Delclitte P, Chatonnet J (1976) Thermoregulation in fasting emperor penguins under natural conditions. Am J Physiol 231:913–922
LeDuc RG, Robertson KM, Pitman RL (2008) Mitochondrial sequence divergence among Antarctic killer whale ecotypes is consistent with multiple species. Biol Lett 4:426–429
Lequette B, Verheyden C, Jouventin P (1989) Olfaction in subantarctic seabirds: its phylogenetic and ecological significance. Condor 91:732–735
Littlepage JL, Pearse JS (1962) Biological and oceanographic observations under an Antarctic ice shelf. Science 137:679–681
Lopez J, Jesse GW, Becker BA, Ellersieck MR (1991) Effects of temperature on the performance of finishing swine: II. Effects of a cold, diurnal temperature on average daily gain, feed intake, and feed efficiency. J Anim Sci 69:1850–1855
Luque SP, Miller EH, Arnould JPY, Chambellant M, Guinet C (2007) Ontogeny of body size and shape of Antarctic and subantarctic fur seals. Can J Zool 85:1275–1285
Marino L (1998) A comparison of encephalization between odontocete cetaceans and anthropoid primates. Brain Behav Evol 51:230–238
Marino L (2007) Cetacean brains: how aquatic are they? Anat Rec 290:694–700
Marino L, Sol D, Toren K, Lefèvre L (2006) Does diving limit brain size in cetaceans? Mar Mamm Sci 22:413–425
Meir JU, Ponganis PJ (2009) High-affinity hemoglobin and blood oxygen saturation in diving emperor penguins. J Exp Biol 212:3330–3338
Moore MJ, Early GA (2004) Cumulative sperm whale bone damage and the bends. Science 306:2215
Nordøy ES (1995) Do minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) digest wax esters? Br J Nutr 74:717–722
Obst BS, Nagy KA (1993) Stomach oil and the energy budget of Wilson’s storm-petrel nestlings. Condor 95:792–805
Obst BS, Nagy KA, Ricklefs RE (1987) Energy utilization by Wilson’s storm petrel (Oceanites oceanicus). Physiol Zool 60:200–210
Oftedal OT (1993) The adaptation of milk secretion to the constraints of fasting in bears, seals and baleen whales. J Dairy Sci 76:3234–3246
Oftedal OT (1997) Lactation in whales and dolphins: evidence of divergence between baleen- and toothed-species. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2:205–230
Oftedal OT (2000) Use of maternal reserves as a lactation strategy in large mammals. Proc Nutr Soc 59:99–106
Oftedal OT (2002) The origin of lactation as a water source for parchment-shelled eggs. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 7:253–266
Oftedal OT (2011) Milk of marine mammals. In: Fuquay JW, Fox PF, McSweeney PLH (eds) Encyclopedia of dairy sciences, vol 3. Academic, San Diego, pp 563–580
Oftedal OT, Boness DJ, Tedman RA (1987a) The behavior, physiology, and anatomy of lactation in the Pinnipedia. In: Genoways H (ed) Current mammalogy, vol 1. Plenum Press, New York, pp 175–245
Oftedal OT, Iverson SJ, Boness DJ (1987b) Milk and energy intakes of suckling California sea lion Zalophus californianus pups in relation to sex, growth, and predicted maintenance requirements. Physiol Zool 60:560–575
Oftedal OT, Boness DJ, Bowen DW (1988) The composition of hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) milk: an adaptation for postnatal fattening. Can J Zool 66:318–322
Oftedal OT, Bowen DW, Boness DJ (1993) Energy transfer by lactating hooded seals and nutrient deposition in their pups during the 4 days from birth to weaning. Physiol Zool 66:412–436
Oftedal OT, Bowen WD, Boness DJ (1996) Lactation performance and nutrient deposition in pups of the harp seal, Phoca groenlandica, on ice floes off Southeast Labrador. Physiol Zool 69:635–657
Olsson O, Brodin A (1997) Changes in king penguin breeding cycle in response to food availability. Condor 99:994–997
Payne MR (1977) Growth of a fur seal population. Philos Trans Roy Soc Lond Ser B 279:67–79
Piantadosi CA, Thalmann ED (2004) Pathology: whales, sonar and decompression sickness. Nature 428. doi:10.1038/nature02527a
Pinkerton MH, Bradford-Grieve JM, Hanchet SM (2010) A balanced model of the food web of the Ross Sea, Antarctica. CCAMLR Sci 17:1–31
Pinshow B, Fedak M, Battles D, Schmidt-Nielsen K (1976) Energy expenditure for thermoregulation and locomotion in emperor penguins. Am J Physiol 231:903–912
Pitman RL, Durban JW (2010) Killer whale predation on penguins in Antarctica. Polar Biol 33:1589–1594
Pitman RL, Durban JW (2012) Cooperative hunting behavior, prey selectivity and prey handling by pack ice killer whales (Orcinus orca), type B, in Antarctic Peninsula waters. Marine Mammal Sci 28:16–36
Pitman RL, Ensor P (2003) Three forms of killer whales (Orcinus orca) in Antarctic waters. J Cetac Res Manag 5:131–139
Plötz J (1986) Summer diet of Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) in the Eastern and Southern Weddell Sea, Antarctica. Polar Biol 6:97–102
Prévost J, Vilter V (1962) Histologie de la sécretion oesophagienne du Manchot Empereur. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Ornithologic Congress, vol 2, American Ornithologists’ Union, pp 1085–1094
Quin D (1998) Antarctica. Audio CD, Miramar
Raccurt M et al (2008) Growing in Antarctica, a challenge for white adipose tissue development in Adélie penguin chicks (Pygoscelis adeliae). Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 295:R1671–R1679
Reich CM, Arnould JPY (2007) Evolution of Pinnipedia lactation strategies: a potential role for α-lactalbumin? Biol Lett 3:546–549
Ribic CA et al (2011) Water masses, ocean fronts, and the structure of Antarctic seabird communities: putting the eastern Bellingshausen Sea in perspective. Deep-Sea Res Part I-Top Stud Oceanogr 58:1695–1709
Roby DD, Taylor JRE, Place AR (1997) Significance of stomach oil for reproduction in seabirds: an interspecies cross-fostering experiment. Auk 114:725–736
Rudmose Brown RN (1915) Part XIII. The seals of the Weddell Sea: notes on their habits and distribution. In: Bruce WS (ed) Report on the scientific results of the voyage of the SY “Scotia”. The Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory, Edinburgh
Sandell M (1990) The evolution of seasonal delayed implantation. Q Rev Biol 65:23–42
Sander K (2002) Ernst Haeckel’s ontogenetic recapitulation: irritation and incentive from 1866 to our time. Ann Anat Anat Anz 184:523–533
Sato K et al (2002) Deep foraging dives in relation to the energy depletion of Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddelli) mothers during lactation. Polar Biol 25:696–702
Schiermeier Q (2010) Ecologists fear Antarctic krill crisis. Nature 467:15
Schmidt-Nielsen K (1997) Animal physiology. Adaptation and environment, 5th edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Scholander PF, Schevill WE (1955) Counter-current vascular heat exchange in the fins of whales. J Appl Physiol 8:279–282
Schulz TM, Bowen DW (2005) The evolution of lactation strategies in pinnipeds: a phylogenetic analysis. Ecol Monogr 75:159–177
Shirihai H (2008) The complete guide to Antarctic wildlife. Birds and marine mammals of the Antarctic continent and the Southern Ocean, 2nd edn. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Siniff DB (1991) An overview of the ecology of Antarctic seals. Am Zool 31:143–149
Smith M (1966) Studies on the Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii Lesson) in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Ph.D. thesis, University of Canterbury
Southwell C, Kerry K, Ensor P, Woehler E, Rogers T (2003) The timing of pupping by pack-ice seals in East Antarctica. Polar Biol 26:648–652
Staniland IJ et al (2010) Geographical variation in the behaviour of a central place forager: Antarctic fur seals foraging in contrasting environments. Mar Biol 157:2383–2396
Stirling I (1969) Ecology of the Weddell seal in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Ecology 50:573–586
Stonehouse B (1953) The emperor penguin Aptenodytes forsteri Gray. I. Breeding behaviour and development. Falkland Islands Depend Surv Sci Rep 6:1–33
Stonehouse B (1956) The king penguin of South Georgia. Nature 178:1424–1426
Taylor JRE (1986) Thermal insulation of the down and feathers of pygoscelid penguin chicks and the unique properties of penguin feathers. Auk 103:160–168
Testa J (1994) Over-winter movements and diving behavior of female Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) in the southwestern Ross Sea, Antarctica. Can J Zool 72:1700–1710
Teulier L, Rouanet J-L, Letexier D, Romestaing C, Belouze M, Rey B, Duchamp C, Roussel D (2010) Cold-acclimation-induced non-shivering thermogenesis in birds is associated with upregulation of avian UCP but not with innate uncoupling or altered ATP efficiency. J Exp Biol 213:2476–2482
Thewissen JGM, George J, Rosa C, Kishida T (2011) Olfaction and brain size in the bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus). Mar Mamm Sci 27:282–294
Thiele D, Gill PC (1999) Cetacean observations during a winter voyage into Antarctic sea ice south of Australia. Antarct Sci 11:48–53
Thomas J, DeMaster D (1983) Parameters affecting survival of Weddell seal pups (Leptonychotes weddelli) to weaning. Can J Zool 61:2078–2083
Thomas DB, Fordyce RE (2008) The heterothermic loophole exploited by penguins. Aust J Zool 55:317–321
Thomas J, Moss CF, Vater M (2004) Echolocation in bats and dolphins. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Thompson MB, Goldie KN (1990) Conductance and structure of eggs of Adélie penguins, Pygoscelis adeliae, and its implications for incubation. Condor 92:304–312
Thor G, Low M (2011) The persistence of the snow petrel (Pagodroma nivea) in Dronning Maud Land (Antarctica) for over 37,000 years. Polar Biol 34:609–613
Todd F (1988) Weddell seal preys on chinstrap penguin. Condor 90:249–250
Tormosov DD et al (1998) Soviet catches of southern right whales Eubalaena australis, 1951–1971. Biological data and conservation implications. Biol Conserv 86:185–197
Trathan PN, Forcada J, Murphy EJ (2007) Environmental forcing and Southern Ocean marine predator populations: effects of climate change and variability. Philos Trans R Soc B 362:2351–2365
Tyler C (1965) A study of the egg shells of the Sphenisciformes. Proc Zool Soc London 147:1–19
van Franeker JA, Creuwels JCS, van der Veer W, Cleland S, Robertson G (2001) Unexpected effects of climate change on the predation of Antarctic petrels. Antarct Sci 13:430–439
Van Opzeeland I et al (2010) Acoustic ecology of Antarctic pinnipeds. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 414:267–291
Van Valkenburgh B, Theodor J, Friscia A, Pollack A, Rowe T (2004) Respiratory turbinates of canids and felids: a quantitative comparison. J Zool 264:281–293
Visser IN et al (2008) Antarctic peninsula killer whales (Orcinus orca) hunt seals and a penguin on floating ice. Mar Mamm Sci 24:225–234
Ward AM, Hunt A, Maslanka M, Brown C (2001) Nutrient composition of American flamingo crop milk. In: Edwards MS, Lisi KJ, Schlegel ML, Bray RE (eds) Proceedings of the AZA Nutrition Advisory Group 4th Conference on Zoo and Wildlife Nutrition, pp 187–193
Warham J (1977) The incidence, functions and ecological significance of petrel stomach oils. Proc N Z Ecol Soc 24:84–93
Watwood SL, Miller PJO, Johnson M, Madsen PT, Tyack PL (2006) Deep-diving foraging behaviour of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus). J Anim Ecol 75:814–825
Weathers WW, Gerhart KL, Hodum PJ (2000) Thermoregulation in Antarctic fulmarine petrels. J Comp Physiol B 170:561–572
Weidinger K (1998) Effect of predation by skuas on breeding success of the Cape petrel Daption capense at Nelson Island, Antarctica. Polar Biol 20:170–177
West KL et al (2007) Effect of lactation stage and concurrent pregnancy on milk composition in the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). J Zool 273:148–160
Wharton DA (2011) Cold tolerance of New Zealand alpine insects. J Insect Physiol 57:1090–1095
Whitehead H (2008) Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus. In: Perrin WF, Würsig BG, Thewissen JGM (eds) Encyclopedia of marine mammals. Academic, San Diego, pp 1091–1097
Willmer P, Stone G, Johnston I (2005) Environmental physiology of animals, 2nd edn. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford
Wilson EA (1907) II. Aves. National Antarctic Expedition, 1901–4, vol II, Zoology, Vertebrata
Wright KLB, Pichegru L, Ryan PG (2011) Penguins are attracted to dimethyl sulphide at sea. J Exp Biol 214:2509–2511
Zelenitsky DK, Therrien F, Ridgely RC, McGee AR, Witmer LM (2011) Evolution of olfaction in non-avian theropod dinosaurs and birds. Proceedings of the Royal Society B
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Eisert, R. (2015). Antarctic Megafauna. In: Liggett, D., Storey, B., Cook, Y., Meduna, V. (eds) Exploring the Last Continent. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18947-5_13
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18947-5_13
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-18946-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-18947-5
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)