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Patterns of Violence and Diet Among Children During a Time of Imperial Decline and Climate Change in the Ancient Peruvian Andes

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The Archaeology of Food and Warfare

Abstract

This chapter explores how an ongoing drought (ca. 900–1350 C.E.), which overlaps with the decline of the Wari Empire (ca. 1100 C.E.), altered the frequency and intensity of violence and food consumption practices among children living in the former Wari imperial core in Ayacucho, Peru. The relationship between violent conflict and diet among juveniles is examined as part of a larger investigation into how the after-effects of sociopolitical decline and an ongoing drought may mutually reinforce and exacerbate detrimental effects on childhood health. Childhood cranial trauma data are used to reconstruct levels and kinds of violence, and stable isotope data from carbonates in the dental enamel apatite and dentin collagen are used to reconstruct childhood diet. Results show a significant increase in lethal violence against children relative to the preceding Wari era. The nitrogen isotope data from dentin collagen suggest that childhood diets were similar in terms of protein consumption in the two eras, but carbon isotope data from both enamel apatite and dentin show that post-Wari children and infants (and their breastfeeding mothers) consumed significantly less carbon-enriched foods such as maize (Zea mays)—a socially valued crop in the Andes—than Wari-era children. A case of cranial trepanation on a child is also presented.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Tooth dentin samples were cleaned and ground to a fine powder using a Foredom handheld motor tool on low speed. All powdered samples had 0.5 N HCl applied and then refrigerated at 9 °C for 24 h. The acid was removed, samples were rinsed five times in pure water, and a solution of 0.1 N NaOH was applied to each sample for 20 h to remove humic contaminants and lipids. After another five water rinses, samples were freeze-dried before isotopic analysis. The result of this method produces a collagen pseudomorph containing mostly collagen but potentially also retaining small amounts of other biological proteins, such as osteocalcin. Steps were taken to ensure that collagen samples included in this study were not compromised due to diagenesis or contamination. Percent collagen yield, percent carbon and nitrogen, and atomic C/N ratios are all reported. Collagen yield for samples ranged from 7 to 50 % (with tooth samples typically having smaller collagen yields than bone samples, potentially related to sample size and loss with chemical preparation steps). C:N ratios are commonly used to assess collagen preservation, with values between 2.9 and 3.6 accepted as “good” samples (DeNiro 1985). All dentin samples have C:N values within this range. Collagen samples were analyzed at the Center for Stable Isotope Biogeochemistry (CSIB) in the Department of Integrative Biology at the University of California, Berkeley. Samples were analyzed using a CHNOS Elemental Analyzer (varioIsotope cube, Elementar, Germany) coupled with an IsoPrime Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer (IsoPrime, UK). Internal standards including NIST SRM 1547 peach leaves and NIST SRM 1577c bovine liver, MJM1 dentin, and ABS 180 bone were also analyzed.

  2. 2.

    Powdered samples had a solution of 2–3 % NaOCl (bleach) added to each. Samples were periodically agitated and after 24 h, the bleach solution was removed and samples were rinsed five times with pure water. A solution of 1 M acetic acid buffered with calcium-acetate was added to each sample for 12 h. The acid solution was removed and samples were rinsed five times in pure water. Carbonate samples were freeze-dried and then analyzed on a GV IsoPrime mass spectrometer with Dual-Inlet and MultiCarb systems in the Laboratory for Environmental and Sedimentary Isotope Geochemistry (LESIG) at the Department of Earth and Planetary Science, University of California, Berkeley. Replicates of an international standard, NBS19, and internal laboratory standards were measured in addition to samples for each run. Samples are compared to the VPDB standard for both δ13C and δ18O. The external analytical precision is reported as ±0.04 ‰ for δ13C and ±0.07 ‰ for δ18O.

  3. 3.

    Teeth were drilled perpendicular to the growth axis with a low-speed dental-style drill and carbide dental burrs. Following standardized protocols (DeSantis et al. 2009; Koch et al. 1997), approximately 2–3 mg of enamel powder soaked in 30 % hydrogen peroxide for a minimum of 24 h to ensure all organics were removed. Enamel powder was subsequently rinsed in pure water three times. Acetic acid (0.1 N) was then added to the samples, and they soaked for exactly 18 h, after which samples were rinsed with pure water an additional three times before left to dry in desiccators. Approximately 1 mg sample from the carbonate portion of tooth enamel hydroxyapatite was run on a Finnigan Delta Plus XP mass spectrometer at the Stable Isotope Facility at the University of Wyoming for carbon and oxygen.

  4. 4.

    When just the machays are compared to Wari samples, the difference is significant (t = 3.68, p = 0.014), and when just Huari-LIP samples are compared to Wari samples, the difference is also significant (t = 3.05, p = 0.006).

  5. 5.

    Teeth from children could not be used in the sex comparisons because their sex cannot be estimated. But, for individuals who died in adulthood, their sex could be estimated based on adult skeletal morphology, providing a retrospective view of diet of girls versus boys.

  6. 6.

    As of yet, there are no isotope data from dentin from the LIP Huari samples.

  7. 7.

    The report warns that the number of child maltreatment cases documented by state agencies is an underrepresentation. The number of reports of child abuse is approximately 3 million (affecting 6 million different children because one report can involve multiple children), of which only a fraction are documented by the US government.

  8. 8.

    Tung (2007, 2012) has suggested that in the ancient Andes, older adolescents (15–19 years) should be grouped with the adults when calculating general trauma frequencies, while juvenile trauma should include individuals younger than 15 years.

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Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to Jose Ochatoma at the Universidad Nacional de San Cristóbal de Huamanga for granting access to the skeletal collections discussed here, and we thank Taylor Macdonald for assistance in editing the bibliography. We also thank the following funding agencies for providing support for this study: The National Science Foundation-Archaeology and Biological Anthropology Divisions; The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research (#8169); the Nashville School of Science and Math at Vanderbilt; the College of A&S at Vanderbilt. Finally, we thank Amber VanDerwarker and Greg Wilson for inviting us to participate in the conference at UCSB and to contribute to this edited volume.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Vanderbilt University, Nashville, USA

    Tiffiny A. Tung & Larisa DeSantis

  2. University of California, Berkeley, USA

    Melanie Miller

  3. Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA

    Emily A. Sharp

  4. Martin Luther King Jr. High School, Nashville, TN, USA

    Jasmine Kelly

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  1. Tiffiny A. Tung
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  3. Larisa DeSantis
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Correspondence to Tiffiny A. Tung .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of California, Santa Barbara, California, USA

    Amber M. VanDerwarker

  2. University of California, Santa Barbara, California, USA

    Gregory D. Wilson

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Tung, T.A., Miller, M., DeSantis, L., Sharp, E.A., Kelly, J. (2016). Patterns of Violence and Diet Among Children During a Time of Imperial Decline and Climate Change in the Ancient Peruvian Andes. In: VanDerwarker, A., Wilson, G. (eds) The Archaeology of Food and Warfare. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18506-4_10

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