Abstract
This chapter discusses judicial selection and lay participation in the Czech judicial system. Firstly, Sect. 2 begins by setting out the cultural vision of the judicial function in the Czech Republic, which defines and helps to explain the institutions and their context as addressed in the subsequent sections. Next, Sect. 3 outlines both the formal requirements for judicial appointments to, in particular, higher courts in the Czech Republic, as well as the actual institutional practice. Section 4 focuses not only on various forms of lay participation in the judicial decision-making processes, as they exist today, but also explains why the post-1989 Czech judiciary remains reserved with regard to lay participation in the judicial process. Finally, Sect. 5 concludes by connecting lay participation with judicial legitimacy, offering general propositions as to judicial transitions in Central Europe.
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Notes
- 1.
Without wishing to enter the lengthy debate as to what should geographically and culturally mean ‘Central Europe’, for the purposes of this report ‘Central European countries’ will refer to the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland and Hungary. There are, naturally, differences between the four countries: a common past does not guarantee a common present. However, because of their shared Austrian and, later, Communist heritage, there are arguably some common elements in the perception of the judicial function present in these four countries.
- 2.
See further, e.g. JP Dawson, The Oracles of the Law (Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Law School, 1968), ch 1 or J Krynen, L’Etat de justice France, XIIIe–XXe siècle. Tome II: L’emprise contemporaine des juges (Paris, Gallimard, 2012) 21 ff. For the jurisprudential account of such positivist interpretive ideology, see, e.g., B Frydman, Le sens des lois: histoire de l’interprétation et de la raison juridique, 3rd edn (Paris-Brussels, Bruylant, 2011).
- 3.
Or, to be precise, they officially started departing from such views and ideology; the reality might have always been different. For a critical discussion see, e.g., F Beranger, La motivation des arrêts de la Cour de cassation (Aix-Marseille, Presses universitaires d’Aix-Marseille, 2003) or M Gläser, Lehre und Rechtsprechung im französischen Zivilrecht des 19. Jahrhunderts (Frankfurt, Klostermann, 1996), suggesting that French higher jurisdictions have in fact never given up their law-making power, even in the heyday of nineteenth century exegesis. They had just hidden it under the surface of their apparent formal legal syllogism.
- 4.
cf the title of chapter ‘IV.’ in Dawson (n 2) 263, as later discussed by other authors, most notably JH Merryman, ‘The French Deviation’ (1996) 44 American Journal of Comparative Law 109.
- 5.
Further, eg, M Bobek, Comparative Reasoning in European Supreme Courts (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013) 208–209 and 237–240.
- 6.
In constitutional terms, Communist law operated with the notion of the unity of state power, not the separation of powers. See J Přibáň, ‘Na stráži jednoty světa: marxismus a právní teorie’ in M Bobek et al. (eds), Komunistické právo v Československu - Kapitoly z dějin bezpráví (Brno, Masarykova univerzita, 2009) 39.
- 7.
For an overview of the day-to-day functioning of the system of ‘Socialist justice’, see, e.g., O Ulč, Malá doznání okresního soudce (Toronto, 68 Publishers, 1974) or I Markovits, Justice in Lüritz: Experiencing Socialist Law in East Germany (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2010).
- 8.
MR Damaška, The Faces of Justice and State Authority; A Comparative Approach to the Legal Process (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1986) 16.
- 9.
Gesetz vom 27. November 1896, womit Vorschriften über die Besetzung, innere Einrichtung und Geschäftsordnung der Gerichte erlassenwerden, RGBl. 217/1896.
- 10.
As aptly pointed out by Otakar Motejl, former Czech Chief Justice and then Minister of Justice, this is why the new Communist rulers in 1948 in (then) Czechoslovakia happily kept the system of administration of courts inherited from pre-WWII, and in fact Austrian, times – cf O Motejl, ‘Soudnictví a jeho správa’ in Bobek et al. Komunistické právo v Československu - Kapitoly z dějin bezpráví(n 6), 813.
- 11.
Z Kühn, Aplikace práva soudcem v éře středoevropského komunismu a transformace Analýza příčin postkomunistické právní krize (Prague, C H Beck, 2005) 72–73.
- 12.
See, for further elaboration of Dworkin’s figure of the (ideal) judge Hercules, e.g., F Ost, ‘Jupiter, Hercule, Hermès: Trois modèles du juge’ in F Ost (ed), Dire le droit, faire justice (Brussels, Bruylant, 2007) 33.
- 13.
Or, perhaps, to dispose of them in a more drastic way, as was suggested by a senior English judge. When asked, what should the Central European states do at the beginning of their transitions in 1990, his answer was ‘Hang all the judges!’ – In Z Tůma, ‘Soudce nelze novelizovat’ in I Pospíšil and M Kokeš (eds), In dubio pro libertate. Úvahy nad ústavními hodnotami a právem. Pocta Elišce Wagnerové u příležitosti životního jubilee (Brno, Masarykova univerzita, 2009) 247.
- 14.
For instance, in Czechoslovakia in early 1950s, Communists established so-called ‘Law Schools for Workers’ [Právnické školy pracujících]. In these special evening schools, opened only to Communists cadres, the Communist Party bred a ‘new type of socialist lawyers’. The course lasted 1 or 2 years and it equalled a university degree in law. The applicants did not even need to have secondary school education. The project itself was, however, discontinued after 4 years in 1954 – the quality of the ‘graduates’ from these courses was apparently too terrifying even for the Communist planners. Further see Z Krystufek, ‘Komunistické právo v Československu’ in Bobek, Komunistické právo v Československu - Kapitoly z dějin bezpráví (n 6), 931.
- 15.
For further discussion of the array of problems this still generates today, see the individual contributions in M Bobek (ed), Central European Judges under the European Influence: The Transformative Power of the EU Revisited (Hart Publishing, 2015).
- 16.
While down-playing the fact that, within a totalitarian Communist state, the ideology and the ideological application of the law was omnipresent, not limited to just criminal trials. Thus, in a system of ‘class-conscious’ judging, it also mattered by whom a normal civil or administrative claim was brought. For example, a divorce and/or a child care dispute would be resolved very differently if the opposing parties were in one case two members of the Communist Party or, in another, a Party member and, by whatever game of chance, a dissident. For case examples, see Ulč, Malá doznání okresního soudce or Markovits, Justice in Lüritz: Experiencing Socialist Law in East Germany (n 7).
- 17.
According to the 2011 population census data made available by the Czech Statistical Office at http://www.scitani.cz, tables no 111 and 153.
- 18.
Z Kühn, ‘The Democratization and Modernization of Post-communist Judiciaries’ in A Febbrajo and W Sadurski (eds), Central and Eastern Europe after Transition (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2010) 178, 191. However, it should be noted that the ‘female majority’ in the judiciary is unequally spread. Whereas in the lower courts, a majority of judges are likely to be female, the ratio becomes reversed at higher levels. Thus, the male–female ratio at the Czech Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and Supreme Administrative Court is on average around 2:1. This has not been, however, at least so far, identified as a problem that ought to be addressed in any structured way.
- 19.
Further see Bobek, Comparative Reasoning in European Supreme Courts (n 5), 157–162 and 265–272.
- 20.
Conditions are listed in § 60 of the Act no 6/2002 Coll., Law on Courts and Judges, as amended [zákon č. 6/2002 Sb., o soudech a soudcích].
- 21.
§ 71, Law on Courts and Judges.
- 22.
§121 of the Code of Administrative Justice (zákon č. 120/2002 Sb., soudní řád správní) contains different provisions with respect to candidates to be appointed to regional courts to sit in specialized administrative chambers as administrative judges of first instance. It sets the required length of legal practice at only 5 years, taking into account that those judges act as first instance judges in administrative matters, although formally attached to the regional (ie in general appellate) courts.
- 23.
Introduced by a Ministry of Justice’s circular of 4 December 1992. Further see J Kocourek and J Záruba, Zákon o soudech a soudcích; Zákon o státním zastupitelství, 2nd edn (Prague, CH Beck, 2004) 227–230.
- 24.
- 25.
The difference in the composition of the judicial body of the Supreme Administrative Court may be traced back firstly to the slightly different wording of §121 Sect. 2 of the Code of Administrative Justice. In contrast to the general provisions applicable to the courts of general jurisdiction, it is more explicitly open to appointments to the Supreme Administrative Court from outside of the judicial hierarchy. However, secondly, and no doubt more importantly, this can be attributed to the personal conviction of the first president of the Supreme Administrative Court, Mr Josef Baxa, that a supreme court ought to be a diverse institution that reaches outside the career judiciary, and his willingness to put that conviction into practice.
- 26.
‘Memorandum o výběru kandidátů na soudce pro Nejvyšší správní soud’ of 25 September 2012, accessible online at <www.nssoud.cz>.
- 27.
Art 63 (1) (i), Constitution of the Czech Republic.
- 28.
A question of marginal interest for the purpose of this report, but of considerable constitutional significance in general, was whether or not the President of the Republic may refuse to appoint a judge who has been approved by the courts’ presidents and the Ministry of Justice, and proposed by the government. The Supreme Administrative Court decided that the President may, in certain circumstances, refuse a candidate. But the grounds are limited and reasons must be stated. Cf the Supreme Administrative Court judgment of 27 April 2006, Case 4 Aps 3/2005–35, published as 905/2006 Sb NSS (Collection of the Decision of the Supreme Administrative Court). Further see M Bobek, ‘The Administration of Courts in the Czech Republic: In Search of a Constitutional Balance’ (2010) 16 European Public Law 251, 260–263.
- 29.
With the exception of an appointment to the Constitutional Court or to an international court (Court of Justice of the European Union, European Court of Human Rights, International Criminal Court, etc.). In such cases, a sworn judge may request (and will be granted) an unpaid leave of absence from his/her home jurisdiction for the duration of the mandate at the respective ‘external’ jurisdiction.
- 30.
Above, Sect. 3.2.
- 31.
‘Memorandum’, n 26.
- 32.
The Czech Constitutional Court was established in 1993. The inspiration for selection and appointment of its justices, as well as the its composition and powers, were apparently drawn from several sources, including the 1920 Czechoslovak Constitution and the German Grundgesetz, with some further inspirational infusions from the United States’ Constitution. Further, e.g., T Němeček, Vojtěch Cepl. Život právníka ve 20. století (Prague, Leges, 2011).
- 33.
For a critical discussion of this process, which led to the formation of the so called ‘Second’ Constitutional Court, in English see Z Kühn and J Kysela, ‘Nomination of Constitutional Justices in Post-Communist Countries: Trial, Error, Conflict in the Czech Republic’ (2006) 2 European Constitutional Law Review 183.
- 34.
In the sense of the Austrian intellectual heritage outlined above in Sect. 2. Of course, all judges are appointed for life with constitutional guarantees of their tenure.
- 35.
Further M Bobek, ‘The Fortress of Judicial Independence and the Mental Transitions of the Central European Judiciaries’ (2008) 14 European Public Law 99.
- 36.
See the parliamentary debates on the Bill no 539/0 of 10 Feb. 2000, on Courts, accessible in full online at the Czech Parliamentary Archives at http://www.psp.cz. The reform has been drafted by the then Minister of Justice, Mr Otakar Motejl. See the document entitled ‘Návrh koncepce reformy soudnictví’ [The Conception of the Reform of the Judiciary] of 16 June 1999 (čj. 1097/99-L), approved by the Czech Government in decision no 686 of 7 July 1999. An outline of the reform proposal was published in Právní rozhledy, special supplement to no 5/1999, 1–8.
- 37.
In most of the post-Communist countries in Central and Eastern Europe, the establishment of Judicial Councils proved to be a problematic step. Critically see M Bobek and D Kosař, ‘Global Solutions, Local Damages: A Critical Study in Judicial Councils in Central and Eastern Europe’ (2014) 15 German Law Journal No. 7.
- 38.
Throughout this section, with the exception of point 3.4., ‘lay participants’ are understood as persons without a university degree in law, ie persons not being lawyers.
- 39.
Gesetz über die Bildung der Geschworenenlisten für die Pressgerichte, RGsBl 33/1869.
- 40.
Gesetz betreffend die Bildung der Geschworenenlisten, RGsBl 121/1873.
- 41.
Zákon č. 278/1919 Sb. z. a n., o sestavování seznamů porotců and later č. 232/1946 Sb., o porotních soudech.
- 42.
See the Austrian Gesetz über die Einrichtung der Gewerbegerichten, RGsBl. 63/1869 and Gesetz betreffend die Einführung von Gewerbegerichten und die Gerichstbarkeit in Streitigkeiten aus dem gewerblichen Arbeits-, Lehr- und Lohnverhältnisse, RGsBl 218/1896, which was more or less re-enacted in inter-war Czechoslovakia as zákon č. 131/1931 Sb. z. a n., o soudnictví ve sporech z poměru pracovního, služebního a učebního.
- 43.
See zákon č. 124/1924 Sb. z. a n., o změně příslušnosti trestních soudů a odpovědnosti za obsah tiskopisu ve věcech křivého obvinění, utrhání a urážek na cti.
- 44.
See zákon č. 48/1931 Sb. z. a n., o trestním soudnictví nad mládeží.
- 45.
See the Austrian Gesetz vom 27. November 1896, womit Vorschriften über die Versetzung, innere Einrichtung und Geschäftsordnung der Gerichte erlassen werden, RGsBl 217/1896, fleshed out with respect to the specialized jurisdictions by the Verordnung der Minister der Justiz und des Ackerbaues vom 1. Juni 1897 über die Ernennung der fachmännischen Laienrichter aus dem Kreise der Bergbaukundigen, RGsBl 128/1897, and Verordnung der Minister der Justiz und des Handels vom 1. Juni 1897 über die Ernennung der fachmännischen Laienrichter aus dem Handesstande und aus dem Kreise der Schiffahrtsfundigen, RGsBl 129/1897.
- 46.
At least in theory. In practice, however, the limited accounts of judicial practice in the 1950s suggest that the professional judges remained largely in control of the proceedings and their outcome, steering/manipulating the only occasionally sitting lay judge towards the desired result. See Ulč, Malá doznání okresního soudce (n 7), 27–37.
- 47.
Ulč, Malá doznání okresního soudce (n 7), 27.
- 48.
See n 14.
- 49.
The same aims and motives were, however, present also in other countries in the former Socialist bloc, including Poland or the German Democratic Republic. See, e.g., S Pomorski, ‘Lay Judges in the Polish Criminal Courts: A Legal and Empirical Description’ (1974–1975) 7 Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 198, 204.
- 50.
Zákon č. 36/1964 Sb., o organizaci soudů a o volbách soudců.
- 51.
Starting with zákon č. 335/1991 Sb., o soudech a soudcích and zákon č. 519/1991 Sb., kterým se mění a doplňuje občanský soudní řád a notářský řád, ve znění zákona č. 24/1993 Sb.
- 52.
Figures are an internal estimate by the Ministry of Justice of 3 March 2011, which were submitted to the Legislative Council of the Czech Government together with the proposal mentioned in the subsequent footnote (on file with the author).
- 53.
At the 73rd sitting of the Legislative Council of the Government of the Czech Republic on 3 March 2011.
- 54.
In ‘Reasoned Report of the Ministry of Justice accompanying the bill’ (unpublished, on file with the author). The reasons are, however, also largely reproduced in a journal article by D Prouza and M Hájek, ‘Laický prvek při soudním rozhodování v trestních věcech aneb přísedící ano či ne?’ Trestněprávní revue No 7/2010, 201.
- 55.
For further discussion on these issues see, e.g., M Malsch, Democracy in Courts: Lay Participation in European Criminal Justice Systems (Burlington, Ashgate, 2009).
- 56.
Conditions are listed in § 60 of the Act no 6/2002 Coll, Law on Courts and Judges.
- 57.
Regulation of the Ministry of Justice of 7 January 1992, no 44/1992 Coll, sets the flat fee remuneration for one day of sitting at CZK 150 (about EUR 5, 50). A lay judge who is in gainful employment may claim foregone daily earnings of up to CZK 680 (about EUR 25). Lay judges may also claim the reimbursement of travel and other necessary costs. However, it is clear that the remuneration received cannot be even conceived of as any type of compensation; the amount is entirely symbolic.
- 58.
Under Czech law, a court executor is a natural person who is entitled to perform forced execution of enforcement titles (final court judgments, administrative decisions) for a fee.
- 59.
Zákon č. 314/2008 Sb., kterým se mění zákon č. 6/2002 Sb., o soudech a soudcích, zákon č. 150/2002 Sb., soudní řád správní, zákon č. 7/2002 Sb., o řízení ve věcech státních zástupců a další předpisy. With respect to disciplinary proceedings against executioners, the amendments were made by zákon č. 183/2009 Sb. and zákon č. 286/2009 Sb.
- 60.
In detail M Bobek, ‘Odpovědnost a disciplína soudce (v přerodu?)’ Právní rozhledy no 14/2011, 502, 503–505.
- 61.
Going back as far as 1868 to the first Austrian codification on the matter, which introduced the model widely shared in a number of continental career judiciaries, in which only senior judges are allow to discipline other judges – cf Gesetz vom 21. Mai 1868, betreffend die Disciplinarbehandlung richterlicher Beamten und die unfreiwillige Versetzung derselben auf eine andere Stelle oder in den Ruhestand, RGBl 46/1868.
- 62.
Cf, e.g., the experiences of Spain or Russia, where the (re-)introduction of trial by jury in the last two decades can be said to be problematic – further see N Vidmar (ed), World Jury Systems (New York, Oxford University Press, 2000) 319–351 or also Malsch (n 55) 52–53.
- 63.
Although, in contrast to the past, popular trust into courts has increased considerably within Czech society. In a survey concerning popular trust in institutions of public life, including the courts, police, army, church, NGOs, press, television, and others, carried out by Sociological Institute of the Czech Academy of Science in September 2013, 50 % of all respondents expressed their trust into courts (with 45 % expressing their distrust and 5 % not knowing). This is a considerable improvement, as in the second half of 1990s, popular trust in the courts lay at around 25 or 30 %. In Důvěra některým institucím veřejného života - září 2013, Tisková zpráva PO131004, online at http://cvvm.soc.cas.cz.
Reference List
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Merryman, JH (1996) ‘The French Deviation’ 44 American Journal of Comparative Law 109.
Motejl, O (2009) ‘Soudnictví a jeho správa’ in M Bobek et al (eds), Komunistické právo v Československu – Kapitoly z dějin bezpráví (Brno, Masarykova univerzita) 813.
Ost, F (2007) ‘Jupiter, Hercule, Hermès: Trois modèles du juge’ in F Ost (ed), Dire le droit, faire justice (Brussels, Bruylant) 33.
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Prouza, D and Hájek, M (2010) ‘Laický prvek při soudním rozhodování v trestních věcech aneb přísedící ano či ne?’ Trestněprávní revue No 7/2010 201.
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Case Law
Supreme Administrative Court of 27 April 2006, Case 4 Aps 3/2005-35, published as 905/2006 Sb. NSS (Collection of the Decision of the Supreme Administrative Court)
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Bobek, M. (2015). Judicial Selection, Lay Participation, and Judicial Culture in the Czech Republic: A Study in a Central European (non)Transformation. In: Turenne, S. (eds) Fair Reflection of Society in Judicial Systems - A Comparative Study. Ius Comparatum - Global Studies in Comparative Law, vol 7. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18485-2_6
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