Skip to main content

Ocular Manifestations of Child Abuse

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Eye in Pediatric Systemic Disease

Abstract

Ophthalmic manifestations of child abuse can be seen in the form of physical abuse, neglect and noncompliance, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse. This chapter reviews these forms of abuse and their ocular manifestations. Ophthalmologists are a key component of the multidisciplinary team and may be the first to recognize abuse and neglect or act as consultants describing the ocular findings and their forensic significance.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. US Department of Health and Human Services AfCaF, Administrationon Children, Youth and Families, Children’s Bureau. Child Maltreatment 2012. 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  2. US Department of Health and Human Services Administration for Children and Families. Child Maltreatment 2006. Washington, DC: 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  3. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Shaken baby syndrome San Francisco: American Academy of Ophthalmology; 2008 [cited 2008 May 25, 2008]. http://one.aao.org/CE/PracticeGuidelines/ClinicalStatements_Content.aspx?cid=c379ec3e-8251-48e6-a88e-fb6f37954b14.

  4. Friendly D. Ocular manifestations of physical child abuse. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1971;75:318–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. Shaken baby syndrome: rotational cranial injuries-technical report. Pediatrics. 2001;108(1):206–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Ludwig S, Warman M. Shaken baby syndrome: a review of 20 cases. Ann Emerg Med. 1984;13(2):104–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Alexander R, Levitt C, Smith W. Abusive head trauma. In: Reece R, Ludwig S, editors. Child abuse: medical diagnosis and management. New York: Lipincott Williams and Wilkins; 2001. p. 47–80.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Starling S, Patel S, Burke B, Sirotnak A, Stronks S, Rosquist P. Analysis of perpetrator admissions to inflicted traumatic brain injury in children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004;158(5):454–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Rangarajan N, Kamalakkannan S, Hasija H, Shams T, Jenny C, Serbanescu I, et al. Finite element model of ocular injury in Shaken Baby syndrome. J AAPOS. 2009;13(4):364–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Caffey J. The parent-infant traumatic stress syndrome; (Caffey-Kempe syndrome), (Battered Babe syndrome). Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med. 1972;114(2):218–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Caffey J. The whiplash shaken infant syndrome: manual shaking by the extremities with whip-lash-induced intracranial and intraocular bleedings, linked with residual permanent brain damage and mental retardation. Pediatrics. 1974;54:396–403.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Duhaime A, Christian C, Rorke L. The “Shaken-Baby Syndrome”. N Eng J Med. 1998;339(18):1329–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Alexander R, Sato Y, Smith W, Bennett T. Incidence of impact trauma with cranial injuries ascribed to shaking. Am J Dis Child. 1990;144:724–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Cirovic S, Freddolini M, Goodwin R, Zimarev D. Shaken mannequin experiments: head motion pattern and its potential effect on blood pressure. J Forensic Biomech. 2012;3:1–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Finnie J, Blumbergs P, Manavis J, Turner R, Helps S, Vink R, et al. Neuropathological changes in a lamb model of non-accidental injury (the shaken baby syndrome). J Clin Neurosci. 2012;19(8):1159–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Levin A. Retinal haemorrhage and child abuse. In: David T, editor. Recent advances in paediatrics, vol. 18. London: Churchill Livingstone; 2000. p. 151–219.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Peterson C, Xu L, Florence C, Parks SE, Miller TR, Barr RG, et al. The medical cost of abusive head trauma in the United States. Pediatrics. 2014;134(1):91–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Palusci VJ, Covington TM. Child maltreatment deaths in the U.S. National Child Death Review Case Reporting System. Child Abuse Negl. 2014;38(1):25–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Barr RG, Trent RB, Cross J. Age-related incidence curve of hospitalized Shaken Baby syndrome cases: convergent evidence for crying as a trigger to shaking. Child Abuse Negl. 2006;30(1):7–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Lee C, Barr R, Catherine N, Wicks A. Age-related incidence of publicly reported Shaken Baby syndrome cases: is crying the trigger for shaking? J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2007;28:288–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Canadian Paediatric Society. Head injury secondary to suspected child maltreatment (abuse or neglect). Ottawa: 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Keenan H, Runyan D, Marshall S, Nocera M, Merten D, Sinal S. A population-based study of inflicted traumatic brain injury in young children. JAMA. 2003;290(5):621–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Perez-Arjona E, Dujovny M, DelProposto Z, Vinas F, Park H, Lizarraga S, et al. Late outcome following central nervous system injury in child abuse. Childs Nerv Syst. 2003;19:69–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Brenner S, Fischer H, Mann-Gray S. Race and the Shaken Baby syndrome: experience at one hospital. J Nat Med Assoc. 1989;81(2):183–4.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Fanconi M, Lips U. Shaken baby syndrome in Switzerland: results of a prospective follow-up study, 2002–2007. Eur J Pediatr. 2010;169(8):1023–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Anderson VA, Morse SA, Catroppa C, Haritou F, Rosenfeld JV. Thirty month outcome from early childhood head injury: a prospective analysis of neurobehavioural recovery. Brain. 2004;127(Pt 12):2608–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Stipanicic A, Nolin P, Fortin G, Gobeil MF. Comparative study of the cognitive sequelae of school-aged victims of Shaken Baby Syndrome. Child Abuse Negl. 2008;32(3):415–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Barlow K, Thompson E, Johnson D, Minns R. Late neurologic and cognitive sequelae of inflicted traumatic brain injury in infancy. Pediatrics. 2005;116(2):174–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Runyan DK. The challenges of assessing the incidence of inflicted traumatic brain injury: a world perspective. Am J Prev Med. 2008;34(4 Suppl):S112–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Runyan DK, Shankar V, Hassan F, Hunter WM, Jain D, Paula CS, et al. International variations in harsh child discipline. Pediatrics. 2010;126(3):e701–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Carbaugh SF. Understanding shaken baby syndrome. Adv Neonatal Care. 2004;4(2):105–14. quiz 15-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Rangel EL, Burd RS, Falcone Jr RA. Socioeconomic disparities in infant mortality after nonaccidental trauma: a multicenter study. J Trauma. 2010;69(1):20–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Arlotti SA, Forbes BJ, Dias MS, Bonsall DJ. Unilateral retinal hemorrhages in shaken baby syndrome. J AAPOS. 2007;11(2):175–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Castiglia P. Shaken Baby syndrome. J Pediatr Health Care. 2001;15:78–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Daly SE, Connor SM. Seasonal variations in the incidence of suspected shaken baby syndrome. Int J Trauma Nurs. 2001;7(4):124–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Miller TR, Steinbeigle R, Wicks A, Lawrence BA, Barr M, Barr RG. Disability-adjusted life-year burden of abusive head trauma at ages 0–4. Pediatrics. 2014;134(6):e1545–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Canadian Paediatric Society. Head injury secondary to suspected child maltreatment (abuse or neglect). Ottawa: 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Foerster B, Petrou M, Lin D, Thurnher M, Carlson M, Strouse P, et al. Neuroimaging evaluation of non-accidental head trauma with correlation to cinical oucomes: a review of 57 cases. J Pediatr. 2009;154(4):573–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Atwal G, Rutty G, Carter N, Green M. Bruising in non-accidental head injured children; a retrospective study of prevalence, distribution, and pathological associations in 24 cases. Child Abuse Negl. 1998;96:215–30.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Maxeiner H. A postmortem view on “pure” subdural hemorrhages in infants and toddlers. Klin Padiatr. 2002;214:30–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Case ME. Abusive head injuries in infants and young children. Leg Med (Tokyo). 2007;9(2):83–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Meythaler J, Peduzzi J, Eleftherious E, Novack T. Current concepts: diffuse axonal injury-associated traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82:1461–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Coats B, Binenbaum G, Peiffer RL, Forbes BJ, Margulies SS. Ocular hemorrhages in neonatal porcine eyes from single, rapid rotational events. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2010;51(9):4792–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Li J, Li XY, Feng DF, Pan DC. Biomarkers associated with diffuse traumatic axonal injury: exploring pathogenesis, early diagnosis, and prognosis. J Trauma. 2010;69(6):1610–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Gleckman AM, Bell MD, Evans RJ, Smith TW. Diffuse axonal injury in infants with nonaccidental craniocerebral trauma: enhanced detection by beta-amyloid precursor protein immunohistochemical staining. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1999;123(2):146–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Reichard R, White C, Hladik C, Dolinak D. Beta-amyloid precursor protein staining of nonaccidental central nervous system injury in pediatric autopsies. J Neurotrauma. 2003;20(4):347–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Reichard RR, Smith C, Graham DI. The significance of beta-APP immunoreactivity in forensic practice. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2005;31(3):304–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Margulies S, Prange M, Myers BS, Maltese MR, Ji S, Ning X, et al. Shaken baby syndrome: a flawed biomechanical analysis. Forensic Sci Int. 2006;164(2–3):278–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Oehmichen M, Schleiss D, Pedal I, Saternus KS, Gerling I, Meissner C. Shaken baby syndrome: re-examination of diffuse axonal injury as cause of death. Acta Neuropathol. 2008;116(3):317–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Reece R. Controversies in Shaken Baby/Shaken impact syndrome. In: Lazoritz S, Palusci V, editors. The Shaken Baby syndrome: a multidisciplinary approach. New York: The Hayworth Press, Inc.; 2001. p. 367–88.

    Google Scholar 

  51. King W, MacKay M, Sirnick A, Group CSBS. Shaken baby syndrome in Canada: clinical characteristics and outcomes of hospital cases. Can Med Assoc J. 2003;168(2):155–9.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Jacques T, Harding B. New developments in ‘shaken baby syndrome’. Am J Neuroradiol. 2008;8(3):24–5.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Barnes PD, Krasnokutsky MV, Monson KL, Ophoven J. Traumatic spinal cord injury: accidental versus nonaccidental injury. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2008;15(4):178–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Reece R. What are we trying to measure? The problems of case ascertainment. Am J Prev Med. 2008;34(4 Suppl):S116–19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Blumenthal I. Shaken baby syndrome. Postgrad Med J. 2002;78:732–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Galaznik JG. Shaken baby syndrome. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008;50(4):317–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Lonergan G, Baker A, Morey M, Boos S. From the archives of the AFIP child abuse: radiologic-pathologic correlation. RadioGraphics. 2003;23:811–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Cairns AM, Mok JY, Welbury RR. Injuries to the head, face, mouth and neck in physically abused children in a community setting. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2005;15(5):310–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Alzahrani M, Ratelle J, Cavel O, Laberge-Malo M, Saliba I. Hearing loss in the shaken baby syndrome. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2014;78(5):804–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Guthkelch A. Infantile subdural haematoma and its relationship to whiplash injuries. Br Med J. 1971;2:430–1.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Duhaime A, Gennarelli T, Thibault L, et al. The shaken baby syndrome: a clinical, pathological, and biomechanical study. J Neurosurg. 1987;66:409–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Corey TS, Hanzlick R, Howard J, Nelson C, Krous H. A functional approach to sudden unexplained infant deaths. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2007;28(3):271–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Duhaime A, Alario A, Lewander W, Schut L, Sutton L, Seidl T, et al. Head injury in very young children: mechanism, injury types, and ophthalmologic findings in 100 hospitalized patients younger than 2 years of age. Pediatrics. 1992;90(2):179–85.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Barsness K, Cha E, Bensard D, Calkins C, Partrick D, Karrer F, et al. The positive predictive value of rib fractures as an indicator of nonaccidental trauma in children. J Trauma. 2003;54:1107–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Bullock DP, Koval KJ, Moen KY, Carney BT, Spratt KF. Hospitalized cases of child abuse in America: who, what, when, and where. J Pediatr Orthop. 2009;29(3):231–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Franke I, Pingen A, Schiffmann H, Vogel M, Vlajnic D, Ganschow R, et al. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)-related posterior rib fractures in neonates and infants following recommended changes in CPR techniques. Child Abuse Negl. 2014;38(7):1267–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. De Leeuw M, Beuls E, Parizel P, Jorens P, Jacobs W. Confessed Abusive Blunt Head Trauma. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2013;34(2):130–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Kemp A, Stoodley N, Cobley C, Coles L, Kemp K. Apnoea and brain swelling in non-accidental head injury. Arch Dis Child. 2003;88:472–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Betz P, Liebhardt E. Rib fractures in children—resuscitation or child abuse? Int J Leg Med. 1994;106:215–18.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Dubowitz H, Bennett S. Physical abuse and neglect of children. Lancet. 2007;369(9576):1891–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Gill JR, Goldfeder LB, Armbrustmacher V, Coleman A, Mena H, Hirsch CS. Fatal head injury in children younger than 2 years in New York City and an overview of the shaken baby syndrome. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2009;133(4):619–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Sinal S, Ball M. Head trauma due to child abuse: serial computerized tomography in diagnosis and management. South Med J. 1987;80(12):1505–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Kivlin J. Ophthalmic manifestations of shaken baby syndrome. In: Lazoritz S, Palusci V, editors. The Shaken Baby syndrome: a multidisciplinary approach. New York: The Hayworth Press, Inc.; 2001. p. 137–53.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Bhardwaj G, Chowdhury V, Jacobs MB, Moran KT, Martin FJ, Coroneo MT. A systematic review of the diagnostic accuracy of ocular signs in pediatric abusive head trauma. Ophthalmology. 2010;117(5):983–92. e17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Togioka BM, Arnold MA, Bathurst MA, Ziegfeld SM, Nabaweesi R, Colombani PM, et al. Retinal hemorrhages and shaken baby syndrome: an evidence-based review. J Emerg Med. 2009;37(1):98–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Emerson MV, Jakobs E, Green WR. Ocular autopsy and histopathologic features of child abuse. Ophthalmology. 2007;114(7):1384–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Duane T, Osher R, Green W. White centered hemorrhages: their significance. Ophthalmology. 1980;87(1):66–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Kapoor S, Schiffman J, Tang R, Kiang E, Li H, Woodward J. The significance of white-centered retinal hemorrhages in the shaken baby syndrome. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1997;13(3):183–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Morad Y, Wygnansky-Jaffe T, Levin AV. Retinal haemorrhage in abusive head trauma. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2010;38(5):514–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Bechtel K, Stoessel K, Leventhal JM, Ogle E, Teague B, Lavietes S, et al. Characteristics that distinguish accidental from abusive injury in hospitalized young children with head trauma. Pediatrics. 2004;114(1):165–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Morad Y, Kim Y, Armstrong D, Huyer D, Mian M, Levin A. Correlation between retinal abnormalities and intracranial abnormalities in the shaken baby syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;134:354–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Rao N, Smith R, Choi J, et al. Autopsy findings in the eyes of fourteen fatally abused children. Forensic Sci Int. 1988;39:293–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Morad Y, Avni I, Capra L, Case M, Feldman K, Kodsi S, et al. Shaken baby syndrome without intracranial hemorrhage on initial computed tomography. J AAPOS. 2004;8(6):521–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Morad Y, Avni I, Benton S, Berger R, Byerley J, Coffman K, et al. Normal computerized tomography of brain in children with Shaken Baby syndrome. J AAPOS. 2004;8(5):445–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Davis F. The anatomy and histology of the eye and orbit of the rabbit. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1929;27:401–41.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Brown S, Bradley J. Hemorrhagic posterior vitreous detachment without intraretinal hemorrhage in a shaken infant. Arch Ophthalmol. 2007;125(9):1301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Ness T, Janknecht P, Berghorn C. Frequency of ocular hemorrhages in patients with subarachnoidal hemorrhage. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2005;243(9):859–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Parsons M, Lieberman G, CMilroy C, Green M. Relative trauma level scoring from ocular findings in non-accidental injury to infants: a forensic study. Proceedings of the XIth Congress of the European Society of Ophthalmology. 1997. pp. 1177–82.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Sebag J, Balazs EA. Morphology and ultrastructure of human vitreous fibers. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1989;30(8):1867–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Sebag J. The vitreous: structure, function, and pathobiology. New York: Springer; 1989.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  91. Sebag J. Anatomy and pathology of the vitreo-retinal interface. Eye. 1992;6:541–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. May K, Parsons M, Doran R. Hemorrhagic retinopathy of shaking injury: clinical and pathological aspects. In: Minns R, Brown J, editors. Shaking and other non-accidental head injuries in children. London: MacKeith Press; 2005. p. 185–207.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Bhola R, Cirovic S, Parson M, Hose D, Lawford P, Howard I. Modeling of the eye and orbit to simulate Shaken Baby syndrome. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46:E-Abstract 4090.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Cirovic S, Bhola RM, Hose DR, Howard IC, Lawford PV, Parsons MA. A computational study of the passive mechanisms of eye restraint during head impact trauma. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin. 2005;8(1):1–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Cirovic S, Bhola RM, Hose DR, Howard IC, Lawford PV, Parsons MA. Mechanistic hypothesis for eye injury in infant shaking: an experimental and computational study. Forensic Sci, Med, Pathol. 2005;1(1):53–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Hans SA, Bawab SY, Woodhouse ML. A finite element infant eye model to investigate retinal forces in shaken baby syndrome. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2008;247(4):561–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Goldenberg DT, Wu D, Capone Jr A, Drenser KA, Trese MT. Nonaccidental trauma and peripheral retinal nonperfusion. Ophthalmology. 2010;117(3):561–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Bielory BP, Dubovy SR, Olmos LC, Hess DJ, Berrocal AM. Fluorescein angiographic and histopathologic findings of bilateral peripheral retinal nonperfusion in nonaccidental injury: a case series. Arch Ophthalmol. 2012;130(3):383–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Wong J, Wong P, Yeoh R. Ocular manifestations in shaken baby syndrome. Singapore Med J. 1995;36:391–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Ho LY, Goldenberg DT, Capone Jr A. Retinal pigment epithelial tear in shaken baby syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 2009;127(11):1547–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Massicotte S, Folberg R, Torczynski E, Gilliland M, Luckenbach M. Vitreoretinal traction and perimacular retinal folds in the eyes of deliberately traumatized children. Ophthalmology. 1991;98(7):1124–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Gonzales C, Scott I, Chaudry N, Oster A, Hess D, Murray T. Bilateral rhegmatogenous retinal detachments with unilateral vitreous base avulsion as the presenting sign of child abuse. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;127(4):475–4477.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Sturm V, Landau K, Menke MN. Optical coherence tomography findings in Shaken Baby syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;146(3):363–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Weedn V, Mansour A, Nichols M. Retinal hemorrhage in an infant after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 1990;11(1):79–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Polito A, Eong K, Repka M, Pieramici D. Bilateral retinal hemorrhages in a preterm infant with retinopathy of prematurity immediately following cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119:913–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Vincent AL, Kelly P. Retinal haemorrhages in inflicted traumatic brain injury: the ophthalmologist in court. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2010;38(5):521–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Kramer K, Goldstein B. Retinal hemorrhages following cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Clin Pediatr. 1993;32:366–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Nadel F, Posner J. In the eye of the beholder. Pediatr Ann. 2001;30:608–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Tyagi A, Scotcher S, Kozeis N, Willshaw H. Can convulsions alone cause retinal haemorrhages in infants? Br J Ophthalmol. 1998;82:659–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  110. Luerssen T, Huang J, McLone D, et al. Retinal hemorrhages, seizures, and intracranial hemorrhages: relationships and outcomes in children suffering traumatic brain injury. Concepts Pediatr Neurosurg. 1991;11:87–94.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Rubin D, Christian C. Retinal hemorrhages in infants with hyponatremic seizures. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2001;17(4):313–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Curcoy AI, Trenchs V, Morales M, Serra A, Pineda M, Pou J. Do retinal hemorrhages occur in infants with convulsions? Arch Dis Child. 2009;94(11):873–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Goldman M, Dagan Z, Yair M, Elbaz U, Lahat E, Yair M. Severe cough and retinal hemorrhage in infants and young children. J Pediatr. 2006;148(6):835–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Choudhry N, Rao RC. Images in clinical medicine. Valsalva retinopathy. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(8), e13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Gabaeff SC. Challenging the pathophysiologic connection between subdural hematoma, retinal hemorrhage and shaken baby syndrome. West J Emerg Med. 2011;12(2):144–58.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  116. Herr S, Pierce M, Berger R, Ford H, Pitetti R. Does Valsalva retinopathy occur in infants? An initial investigation in infants with vomiting caused by pyloric stenosis. Pediatrics. 2004;113(6):1658–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Geddes J, Tasker R, Hackshaw A, Nickols C, Adams G, Whitwell H, et al. Dural haemorrhage in non-traumatic infant deaths: does it explain the bleeding in ‘shaken baby syndrome’? Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2003;29:14–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Binenbaum G, Rogers DL, Forbes BJ, Levin AV, Clark SA, Christian CW, et al. Patterns of retinal hemorrhage associated with increased intracranial pressure in children. Pediatrics. 2013;132(2):e430–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  119. Biousee V, Mendicino M, Simon D, Newman N. The ophthalmology of intracranial vascular malformations. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;125:527–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Gayle M, Kissoon N, Hered R, Harwood-Nuss A. Retinal hemorrhage in the young child: a review of etiology, predisposed conditions, and clinical implications. J Emerg Med. 1995;13(2):233–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Shiau T, Levin A. Retinal hemorrhages in children: the role of intracranial pressure. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2012;166(7):623–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Kivlin J, Simons K, Lazoritz S, Ruttum M. Shaken baby syndrome. Ophthalmology. 2000;107(7):1246–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Bhardwaj G, Jacobs MB, Moran KT, Tan K. Terson syndrome with ipsilateral severe hemorrhagic retinopathy in a 7-month-old child. J AAPOS. 2010;14(5):441–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Castren J. Pathogenesis and treatment of Terson syndrome. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1963;41:430–4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Hedges Jr TR. Mechanism of Terson syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1992;99(5):647.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Wygnanski-Jaffe T, Levin AV, Shafiq A, Smith C, Enzenauer RW, Elder JE, et al. Postmortem orbital findings in shaken baby syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;142(2):233–40. e2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Duhaime A, Christian C, Rorke L, Zimmerman R. Nonaccidental head injury in infants—the “shaken-baby syndrome”. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(25):1822–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Green M, Lieberman G, Milroy C, Parsons M. Ocular and cerebral trauma in non-accidental injury in infancy: underlying mechanisms and implications for paediatric practice. Br J Ophthalmol. 1996;80:282–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  129. Schloff S, Mullaney P, Armstrong D, Simantirakis E, Humphreys R, Myseros J, et al. Retinal findings in children with intracranial hemorrhage. Ophthalmology. 2002;109(8):1472–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Binenbaum G, Mirza-George N, Christian CW, Forbes BJ. Odds of abuse associated with retinal hemorrhages in children suspected of child abuse. J AAPOS. 2009;13(3):268–72.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  131. Maguire SA, Watts PO, Shaw AD, Holden S, Taylor RH, Watkins WJ, et al. Retinal haemorrhages and related findings in abusive and non-abusive head trauma: a systematic review. Eye (Lond). 2013;27(1):28–36.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Buys Y, Levin A, Enzenauer R, Elder J, Letourneau M, Humphreys R, et al. Retinal findings after head trauma in infants and young children. Ophthalmology. 1992;99(11):1718–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Adams GG, Agrawal S, Sekhri R, Peters MJ, Pierce CM. Appearance and location of retinal haemorrhages in critically ill children. Br J Ophthalmol. 2013;97(9):1138–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. McKeown H. Retinal hemorrhages in the newborn. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1940;38:510–19.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  135. Paciuc M, Garcia-Alonso P, Moragrega E. Hyphema and vitreous hemorrhage in a newborn. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1988;19(9):680.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Richman F. Retinal haemorrhage in the newborn. Proc R Soc Med. 1936;30:7/277–10/80.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Schoenfeld A, Buckman G, Nissenkorn I, Cohen S, Ben-Sira I, Ovadia J. Retinal hemorrhages in the newborn following labor induced by oxytocin or dinoprostone. Arch Ophthalmol. 1985;103:932–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Sezen F. Retinal haemorrhage in newborn infants. Br J Ophthalmol. 1970;55:248–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. Binenbaum G, Christian C, Ichord R, Ying G, Simon M, Romero K, et al. Retinal hemorrhage and brain injury patterns on diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in children with head trauma. J AAPOS. 2013;17:603–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Scheller J, Huisman TA. Moderate Bilateral Retinal Hemorrhages in an Infant Following a Short Fall. Clin Pediatrics. 2015;54(10):999–1002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  141. Gilliland M, Folberg R, Hayreh S. Age of retinal hemorrhages by iron detection. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2005;26(1):1–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. McCabe C, Donahue S. Prognostic indicators for vision and mortality in shaken baby syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 2000;118:373–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Quinn K, Gammon J. Children’s eye as indicators of physcial abuse. Am Orthoptic J. 1983;33:99–104.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Gilles E, McGregor M, Levy-Clarke G. Retinal hemorrhage asymmetry in inflicted head injury: a clue to pathogenesis? J Pediatr. 2003;143:494–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Levin AV, Christian CW. The eye examination in the evaluation of child abuse. Pediatrics. 2010;126(2):376–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Gilliland M, Luckenbach M, Chenier T. Systemic and ocular findings in 169 prospectively studied child deaths: retinal hemorrhages usually mean child abuse. Forensic Sci Int. 1994;68:117–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Elner S, Elner V, Arnall M, Albert D. Ocular and associated systemic findings in suspected child abuse: a necropsy study. Arch Ophthalmol. 1990;108:1094–101.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Lin K, Glasgow B. Bilateral periopticointrascleral hemorrhages associated with traumatic child abuse. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;127(4):473–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Brownstein S, Dorey M. The spectrum of postmortem ocular findings in victims of shaken baby syndrome. Can J Ophthalmol. 2002;37(1):4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Gribomont A. Hemorragies traumatiques vitreo-retiniennes de l’enfant. Bull Soc Belge Ophtalmol. 2001;281:5–11.

    Google Scholar 

  151. Han D, Wilkinson W. Late ophthalmic manifestations of the shaken baby syndrome. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1990;27(6):299–303.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Jansson B. Shaken Baby syndrome. Lakartidmngen. 1994;91(6):491–4. 9.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Greenwald M, Weiss A, Oesterle C, Friendly D. Traumatic retinoschisis in battered babies. Ophthalmology. 1986;93:618–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Caputo G, de Haller R, Metge F, Dureau P. Ischemic retinopathy and neovascular proliferation secondary to Shaken baby syndrome. Retina. 2008;28:S42–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Capone A. Lens-sparing vitreous surgery for infantile amblyogenic vitreous hemorrhage. Retina. 2003;23:792–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Duhaime A, Eppley M, Margulies S, Heher K, Bartlett S. Crush injuries to the head in children. Neurosurgery. 1996;39(4):401–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  157. Mulvihill A, Buncic J. Vertical sensory nystagmus associated with intraocular haemorrhages in the shaken baby syndrome. Eye. 2004;18:545–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Nakayama Y, Yokoi T, Sachiko N, Okuyama M, Azuma N. Electroretinography combined with spectral domain optical coherence tomography to detect retinal damage in shaken baby syndrome. J AAPOS. 2013;17(4):411–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Cackett P, Fleck B, Mulvihill A. Bilateral fourth-nerve palsy occurring after shaking injury in infancy. J AAPOS. 2004;8(3):280–1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Martin HA, Woodson A, Christian CW, Helfaer MA, Raghupathi R, Huh JW. Shaken baby syndrome. Crit Care Nurs Clin North Am. 2006;18(3):279–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Ko F, Knox DL. The ocular pathology of Terson’s syndrome. Ophthalmology. 2010;117(7):1423–9. e2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Ou J, Moshfeghi D, Tawansy K, Sears J. Macular hole in Shaken Baby syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006;124:913–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. de Respinis P, Caputo A, Fiore P, Wagner R. A survey of severe eye injuries in children. Am J Dis Child. 1989;143:711–16.

    Google Scholar 

  164. Hendrick E, Harwood-Nash D, Hudson A. Head injuries in children: a survey of 4465 consecutive cases at The Hospital for Sick Childrem, Toronto. Canada Clin Neurosurg. 1964;11:46–65.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Kontkanen M, Kaarniranta K. Retinal haemorrhages in shaken baby syndrome. Acta Ophthalmol. 2009;87(4):471–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Schmitt B. The child with nonaccidental trauma. In: Kempe C, Helfer R, editors. The battered child. 3rd ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press; 1980. p. 128–46.

    Google Scholar 

  167. Levin A. Photodocumentation in the Shaken Baby syndrome. APSAC Advisor. 2001;13(2):17–8.

    Google Scholar 

  168. Nakagawa T, Skrinska R. Improved documentation of retinal hemorrhages using a wide-field digital ophthalmic camera in patients who experienced abusive head trauma. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2001;155:1149–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Gilliland M, Levin A, Enzenauer R, Smith C, Parsons M, Rorke-Adams L, et al. Guidelines for postmortem protocol for ocular investigation of sudden unexplained infant death and suspected physical child abuse. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2007;28(4):323–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Parsons M, Start R. Necropsy techniques in ophthalmic pathology. J Clin Pathol. 2001;54(6):417–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  171. Krous H. Force ISAPCotGST. Instruction and reference manual for the international standardized autopsy protocol for sudden unexpected infant death. J Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Infant Mortal. 1996;1(3):203–46.

    Google Scholar 

  172. Kempe CH, Silverman FN, Steele BF, Droegemueller W, Silver HK. The battered-child syndrome. JAMA. 1962;181:17–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Roche AJ, Fortin G, Labbe J, Brown J, Chadwick D. The work of Ambroise Tardieu: the first definitive description of child abuse. Child Abuse Negl. 2005;29(4):325–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Labbe J. Ambroise Tardieu: the man and his work on child maltreatment a century before Kempe. Child Abuse Negl. 2005;29(4):311–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Markel H. Case Shined First Light on Abuse of Children. New York Times 2009:D9.

    Google Scholar 

  176. Cameron J, Johnson H, Camps F. The battered child syndrome. Med Sci Law. 1966;6:2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Douglas EM, Mohn BL. Fatal and non-fatal child maltreatment in the US: an analysis of child, caregiver, and service utilization with the national child abuse and neglect data set. Child Abuse Negl. 2014;38(1):42–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Hampton R, Newberger E. Child abuse and reporting by hospitals: significance of severity, class, and race. Am J Public Health. 1985;75:56–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  179. Lane WG, Dubowitz H. What factors affect the identification and reporting of child abuse-related fractures? Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2007;461:219–25.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Florence C, Brown DS, Fang X, Thompson HF. Health care costs associated with child maltreatment: impact on medicaid. Pediatrics. 2013;132(2):312–18.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  181. Hussey HH. The battered child syndrome: unusual manifestations. JAMA. 1975;234(8):856.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Conradi S, Brissie R. Battered child syndrome in a four year old with previous diagnosis of Reye’s syndrome. Forensic Sci Int. 1986;30:195–203.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Levy I, Wysenbeek YS, Nitzan M, Nissenkorn I, Lerman-Sagle T, Steinherz R. Occult ocular damage as a leading sign in the battered child syndrome. Metab Pediatr Syst Ophthalmol. 1990;13(1):20–2.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Caffey J. Multiple fractures in the long bones of infants suffering from chronic subdural hematoma. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther. 1946;56(2):163–73.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Prosser I, Maguire S, Harrison S, Mann M, Sibert J, Kemp A. How old is this fracture? Radiologic dating of fractures in children: a systematic review. Am J Roentgenol. 2005;184:1282–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  186. Sorantin E, Brader P, Thimary F. Neonatal trauma. Eur J Radiol. 2006;60(2):199–207.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Harper N, Feldman K, Sugar N, Anderst J, Lindberg DM. Additional injuries in young infants with concern for abuse and apparently isolated bruises. J Pediatr. 2014;165:383–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. LA Capra L, Howard A, Shouldice M. Characteristics of femur fractures in ambulatory young children. Emerg Med J. 2013;30:749–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Lindberg D, Makoroff K, Harper N, Laskey A, Bechtel K, Deye KP. Utility of hepatic transaminases to recognize abuse in children. Pediatrics. 2009;124:509–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Kos L, Shwayder T. Cutaneous manifestations of child abuse. Pediatr Dermatol. 2006;23(4):311–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Maguire S, Mann M, Sibert J, Kemp A. Can you age bruises accurately in children? A systematic review. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90:187–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  192. Maguire S, Mann M, Sibert J, Kemp A. Are there patterns of bruising in childhood which are diagnostic or suggestive of abuse? A systematic review. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90:182–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  193. Ojo P, Palmer J, Garvey R, Atweh N, Fidler P. Pattern of burns in child abuse. Am Surg. 2007;73(3):253–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Feldman KW. Help needed on hot water burns. Pediatrics. 1983;71(1):145–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Faller-Marquardt M, Pollak S, Schmidt U. Cigarette burns in forensic medicine. Forensic Sci Int. 2008;176(2–3):200–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Baum J, Bulpitt C. Retinal and conjunctival haemorrhage in newborn. Arch Dis Child. 1970;45:344–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  197. Katzman GH. Pathophysiology of neonatal subconjunctival hemorrhage. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1992;31(3):149–52.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Skarbek-Borowska SE, Campbell KT. Globe rupture and nonaccidental trauma: two case reports. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2011;27(6):544–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Coburn E. Hemorrhages in the eye, present at birth. Arch Ophthalmol. 1904;33:256–67.

    Google Scholar 

  200. Iyengar S, Olitsky S, Neville K. Diagnosis of factor XI deficiency following congenital cataract extraction. J AAPOS. 2008;12(3):297–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Jain I, Singh Y, Grupta S, et al. Ocular hazards during birth. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1980;171:14–6.

    Google Scholar 

  202. Noel L, Botash A, DeSilva A. Maternal antiphospholipid antibodies and vitreous hemorrhages in the newborn: a case report. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119(6):914–16.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Shaw N, Eden O. Juvenile chronic myelogenous leukemia and neurofibromatosis in infancy presenting as ocular hemorrhage. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 1989;6:23–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Kellogg ND. Evaluation of suspected child physical abuse. Pediatrics. 2007;119(6):1232–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Crenshaw W, Lichtenberg J. Child abuse and the limits of confidentiality: forewarning practices. Behav Sci Law. 1993;11:181–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Brent RL. The irresponsible expert witness: a failure of biomedical graduate education and professional accountability. Pediatrics. 1982;70(5):754–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Roesler TA JC. Medical Child Abuse Beyond Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy. Am Acad Pediatr. 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  208. Flaherty EG, Macmillan HL. Committee On Child A, Neglect. Caregiver-fabricated illness in a child: a manifestation of child maltreatment. Pediatrics. 2013;132(3):590–7.

    Google Scholar 

  209. Vennemann B, Bajanowski T, Karger B, Pfeiffer H, Koöhler H, Brinkmann B. Suffocation and poisoning—the hard—hitting side of Munchausen syndrome by Proxy. Int J Legal Med. 2005;119:98–102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Koetting C. Caregiver-fabricated illness in a child. J Forensic Nurs. 2015;11(2):114–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  211. McClure RJDP, Meadow SR, Sibert JR. Epidemiology of Munchausen syndrome by proxy, non-accidental poisoning, and non-accidental suffocation. Arch Dis Child. 1996;75(1):57–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  212. Sheridan M. The deceit continues: an updated literature review of Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy. Child Abuse Negl. 2003;27:431–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Squires J, Squires Jr RH. Munchausen by proxy; ongoing clinical challenges. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2010;51(3):248–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Denny S, Grant CC, Pinnock R. Epidemiology of Munchausen by proxy in New Zealand. J Paediatr Child Health. 2001;37(3):240–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Kohara M, Levin A. Ocular manifestations of child abuse. Focal Points. 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  216. Brown A, Gonzalez GR, Wiester RT, Kelley MC, Feldman KW. Care taker blogs in caregiver fabricated illnes in a child: a window on the caretaker thinking? Child Abuse Negl. 2014;38(3):488–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Rosenberg D. Munchausen syndrome by proxy: medical diagnostic criteria. Child Abuse Negl. 2003;27(4):421–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  218. Feldman M, Brown RM. Munchausen by proxy in an international context. Child Abuse Negl. 2002;26(5):509–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Feldman M, Feldman KW, Grady R, Burns MW, McDonald R. Renal and urologic manifestations of pediatric condition falsification/Muchnaousen by proxy. Prediatr Nephrol. 2007;22(6): 849–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  220. Baskin D, Stein F, Coats D, Paysse E. Recurrent conjunctivitis as a presentation of Munchausen syndrome by proxy. Ophthalmology. 2003;110(8):1582–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  221. Rosenberg D. Web of deceit: a literature review of Munchausen syndrome by proxy. Child Abuse Negl. 1987;11:547–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. Stirling Jr J. Beyond Munchausen syndrome by proxy: identification and treatment of child abuse in a medical setting. Pediatrics. 2007;119(5):1026–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  223. Hall D, Eubanks L, Meyyazhagan LS, Kenney RD, Johnson SC. Evaluation of covert video surveilannce in the diagnosis of Munchausen syndrome by proxy: lessons from 41 cases. Pediatrics. 2000;105(6):1305–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Southall DP, Plunkett MC, Banks MW, Falkov AF, Samules MP. Covert Video recordings of life-threatening child abuse: lessons for child protection. Pediatrics. 1997;100(5):735–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Skellern C, Donald T. Suspicious childhood injury: formulation of forensic opinion. J Paediatr Child Health. 2011;47(11):771–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Wolf BC, Harding BE. Household furniture tip-over deaths of young children. J Forensic Sci. 2011;56(4):918–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. de Andrade AF, Marino R, Ciquini O, Figueiredo EG, Machado AG. Guidelines for neurosurgical trauma in Brazil. World J Surg. 2001;25(9):1186–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Damashek A, Nelson MM, Bonner BL. Fatal child maltreatment: characteristics of deaths from physical abuse versus neglect. Child Abuse Negl. 2013;37(10):735–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  229. Bechtel K. Sudden unexpected infant death: differentiating natural from abusive causes in the emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2012;28(10):1085–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  230. Glaser D. Child abuse and neglect and the brain—a review. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2000;41(1):97–116.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  231. Squier W. Non-accidental brain injury: mechanisms and imponderables. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2010;52(2):219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Walsh J, Reardon W. Job syndrome masquerading as non-accidental injury. Arch Dis Child. 2008;93(1):65–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  233. Block RW, Krebs NF, Nutrition AAoPCoCAaNatCo. Failure to thrive as a manifestation of child neglect. Pediatrics. 2005;116(5):1234–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  234. Collins M, Levin A. Ophthalmic and systemic manifestations of child abuse. Philadelphia: Lippincott and Williams; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  235. Jenny C. Recognizing and responding to medical neglect. Pediatrics. 2007;120(6):1385–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  236. Sirotnak AP, Krugman RD. Physical abuse of children: an update. Pediatr Rev. 1994;15(10):394–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  237. Christoffel KK, Zieserl EJ, Chiaramonte J. Should child abuse and neglect be considered when a child dies unexpectedly? Am J Dis Child. 1985;139(9):876–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  238. Bhatia S, Maguire SA, Chadwick BL, Hunter ML, Harris JC, Temptest V, Mann MK, Kemp AM. Characteristics of child dental negelct: a systematic review. J Dent. 2014;42(3):229–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  239. Jud A, Lips U, Landolt MA. Characteristics associated with maltreatment types in children referred to a hospital protection team. Eur J Pediatr. 2010;169(2):173–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  240. Trocme N, Fallon B, MacLaurin B, Daciuk J, Felstiner C, Black T, et al. Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect—2003: Major Findings: Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada; 2005. p. 148.

    Google Scholar 

  241. Theodore AD, Chang JJ, Runyan DK, Hunter WM, Bangdiwala SI, Agans R. Epidemiologic features of the physical and sexual maltreatment of children in the Carolinas. Pediatrics. 2005;115(3):e331–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. Finkelhor D. Child sexual abuse. In: Rosenberg ML, Fenley MA, editors. Violence in America: a public health approach. New York: Oxford University Press; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  243. Mammas I, Sourvinos G, Spandidos DA. Human papilloma virus (HPV) infection in children and adolescents. Eur J Pediatr. 2009;168:267–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  244. Sinclair KA, Woods CR, Kirse DJ, Sinal SH. Anogenital and respiratory tract human papillomavirus infections among children: age, gender, and potential transmission through sexual abuse. Pediatrics. 2005;116(4):815–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. Kellogg ND. The evaluation of sexual abuse in children. Pediatrics. 2005;116:506–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  246. Kaplan B. Ophthalmic issues in family violence and neglect. In: Albert D, Jakobiec F, editors. Principles and practice of ophthalmology. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders; 1994. p. 3757–62.

    Google Scholar 

  247. Lanier P, Maguire-Jack K, Walsh T, Drake B, Hubel G. Race and ethnic differences in early childhood maltreatment in the United States. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2014;35(7):419–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Zuccoli G, Panigrahy A, Haldipur A, Willaman D, Squires J, Wolford J, et al. Susceptibility weighted imaging depicts retinal hemorrhages in abusive head trauma. Neuroradiology. 2013;55(7):889–93.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  249. Ryan MF. Phthiriasis Palpebrarum Infection: a concern for child abuse. J Emerg Med. 2014;46(6):e159–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  250. San Martin R, Steinkuller PG, Nisbet RM. Retinopathy in the sexually abused battered child. Ann Ophthalmol. 1981;13(1):89–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Allareddy V, Asad R, Lee M, Nalliah R, Rampa S, Speicher D, et al. Hospital based emergency department visits attributed to child physical abuse in UNited States: predictors of in-hospital mortality. PLoS ONE. 2014;9(6), e100110.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  252. Trocme N, MacMillan H, Fallon B, De Marco R. Nature and severity of physcial harm caused by child abuse and neglect: results from the Canadian Incidence Study. Can Med Assoc J. 2003;169(9):911–15.

    Google Scholar 

  253. Felitti V, Anda RF, Nordenberg D, Williamson DF, Edwards V, Koss MP, Marks JS. Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfuntion to many of the leading causes of death in adults. Am J Prevent Med. 1998;14(4):245–58.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. Vrabec T, Levin A, Nelson L. Functional blinking in childhood. Pediatrics. 1989;1989:967–70.

    Google Scholar 

  255. Lim SA, Siatkowski RM, Farris BK. Functional visual loss in adults and children patient characteristics, management, and outcomes. Ophthalmology. 2005;112(10):1821–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  256. Catalano R, Simon J, Krohel G, Rosenberg P. Functional visual loss in children. Ophthalmology. 1986;93:385–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  257. Bell C, Jenkins E. Community violence and children on Chicago’s Southside. Psychiatry. 1993;56:46–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  258. Bruce B, Newman NJ. Functional vision loss. Neurol Clin. 2010;28(3):789–802.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  259. Levin AV. Child abuse. In: Levin AV, Wilson T, editors. The hospital for sick children’s atlas of pediatric ophthalmology. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alex V. Levin M.D., M.H.Sc., F.R.C.S.C. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Warner, N., McCans, K.M., Levin, A.V. (2017). Ocular Manifestations of Child Abuse. In: Levin, A., Enzenauer, R. (eds) The Eye in Pediatric Systemic Disease. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18389-3_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18389-3_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-18388-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-18389-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics