Environmental Protection and Clean Energy Overlaps

Couvillion, Leslie

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-18002-1_23

Leslie Couvillion³

1009 Accesses

Abstract

Agricultural plant and animal products often have a complex lifecycle: they are grown, transported, processed, packaged, and—ultimately—consumed, discarded, or recycled. Each of these processes is interrelated. Therefore, efficiency improvements at any stage can support greater sustainability of the entire food chain, with significant environmental, economic, and social welfare repercussions. For instance, better practices at the end of the cycle (like recycling and composting programs for packaging and food scraps) can reduce the amount of food that must be grown at the beginning of the cycle. Lowered demand allows farmers to use less land, water, and chemicals to produce food. In turn, this can:

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Notes

1.
Indeed, “[t]he carbon footprint of food produced and not eaten is estimated to 3.3 G[iga] tonnes of CO₂ equivalent: as such, food wastage ranks as the third top emitter after USA and China.” (This figure is without accounting for GHG emissions from land use change). United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (2013), p. 6. In addition to carbon emissions, landfilled organic waste releases methane, an even more potent greenhouse gas than CO₂, as it biodegrades. United States Environmental Protection Agency (2015).
2.
Organic waste is a potential input fuel in anaerobic digestion (“waste-to-energy”) biogas plants. See California Energy Commission (2015).
3.
See Food and Drink Federation (2014).
4.
For example, Kenya’s Agriculture (Farm Forestry) Rules require farmers to establish and maintain farm forestry on at least 10 % of their agricultural lands. See Appendix to Chap. 24.
5.
For example, England’s 2003 Organic Farming (England Rural Development Programme) Regulations provide for aid payments to farmers who introduce organic farming methods and comply with certain environmental conditions. See Appendix to Chap. 24.
6.
In the United States, for example, the Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act, Food Additive Regulations govern food packaging component materials. See Appendix.
7.
See Sect. 23.7 and Appendix. Australia, South Korea, and a handful of other countries have such “empty space” packaging requirements in place.
8.
Roughly a dozen US states have such laws. See infra Sect. 23.3.1.4. Israel also has a national Deposit on Beverage Containers Law, and Germany’s Packaging Waste Ordinance imposes mandatory bottle deposit obligations on retailers. See Appendix.
9.
Examples include South Africa’s Plastic Bags Regulation and India’s regional Tamil Nadu Plastic Articles (Prohibition of Sale, Storage, Transport and Use) Act. The Tamil Nadu regulations even forbid restaurant owners from using plastic articles in their establishments. See Appendix.
10.
Inorganic food waste, such as plastic or glass packaging, is often regulated separately from other waste streams under recycling laws and programs. See, for example, infra Sect. 23.4.3.
11.
See infra Sect. 23.5.2.
12.
See infra Sect. 23.4.1.
13.
See infra Sect. 23.3.1.4.
14.
Wakeland et al. (2012).
15.
Wakeland et al. (2012), pp. 201–202.
16.
The UK-based Food and Drink Federation (FDF) has “committed to embedding environmental standards into their transport practices … to achieve ‘fewer and friendlier’ food transport miles.” See Food and Drink Federation (2014).
17.
See infra Sect. 23.7.
18.
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (2013).
19.
World Trade Organization (1995a).
20.
World Trade Organization (1995b).
21.
World Trade Organization (2015c).
22.
World Trade Organization (2015b). At the same time, the agreement protects countries’ right to implement measures that achieve legitimate policy measures (such as protecting human or environmental health).
23.
World Trade Organization (2015a).
24.
See State of Oregon, Department of Environmental Quality (2005).
25.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1998).
26.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2014).
27.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2014).
28.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2015).
29.
Buzby and Human (2012), pp. 561–570.
30.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2014b).
31.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2014a).
32.
See infra Sect. 23.3.1.1.
33.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery Program Management, Communications, and Analysis Office (2011).
34.
See infra Sect. 23.3.1.4.
35.
See infra Sect. 23.3.1.
36.
Keller and Heckman LLP (2002).
37.
Aggregate transportation accounts for approximately 11 % of total carbon emissions in the US. Wakeland et al. (2012), p. 202.
38.
See infra Sect. 23.3.1.4.
39.
See infra Sect. 23.3.1.5.
40.
United States Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service (2013).
41.
42 U.S.C. §§ 6901–6992k. See Cornell University Law School. U.S. code, tit 42, chap 82.
42.
Section 6002 requires EPA to develop guidelines for government agencies to use in procuring products containing recycled material. EPA issued such guidelines in 1995 (“Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines”), followed by a guidance document (“Final Guidance on Environmentally Preferable Purchasing for Executive Agencies”) in 1999. Keller and Heckman LLP (2002).
43.
42 U.S.C. § 6902. See Cornell University Law School. U.S. code, tit 42, chap 82, subchap 1 § 6902.
44.
42 U.S.C. § 6903(27). See Cornell University Law School. U.S. code, tit 42, chap 82, subchap 1 § 6903.
45.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery Program Management, Communications, and Analysis Office (2011).
46.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2013a).
47.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery Program Management, Communications, and Analysis Office (2011), p. II-2.
48.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery Program Management, Communications, and Analysis Office (2011), p. II-3.
49.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery Program Management, Communications, and Analysis Office (2011), p. II-3.
50.
The guidelines recognize that strategies which divert waste “have positive impacts on both the environment and economy.” United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery Program Management, Communications, and Analysis Office (2011), p. II-3.
51.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery Program Management, Communications, and Analysis Office (2011), p. II-5.
52.
42 U.S.C. § 4320 et seq. See Cornell University Law School. U.S. code, tit 42, chap 55.
53.
42 U.S.C. § 4332(A). See Cornell University Law School. U.S. code, tit 42, chap 55, subchap 1 § 4332.
54.
See Robertson v. Methow Valley Citizens Council, 490 U.S. 332, 336 (1989). Available via Justia (2015).
55.
40 C.F.R. § 1508.18. See Cornell University Law School. 40 C.F.R. tit 40, chap V, part 1508, § 1508.18.
56.
Keller and Heckman LLP (2002).
57.
Keller and Heckman LLP (2002).
58.
42 U.S.C. § 1791. See Cornell University Law School. U.S. code, tit 42, chap 13A.
59.
42 U.S.C. § 1791(c). See Cornell University Law School. U.S. code, tit 42, chap 13A.
60.
42 U.S.C. § 1791(c)(3). See Cornell University Law School. U.S. code, tit 42, chap 13A.
61.
Leib (2012) (citing 9 Mass. Gen. Laws, Chap. 94, § 328 (2011)).
62.
Leib (2012) (citing Or. Rev. Stat., § 315.156 (2012)).
63.
Hendrix (2013).
64.
State of Vermont, Waste Management & Prevention Division (2015).
65.
State of Vermont, Waste Management & Prevention Division (2015).
66.
City of Seattle Public Utilities and Councilmember Bagshaw S (2014).
67.
See City of Austin, Resource Recovery. Frequently asked questions.
68.
States and territories with bottle bills include California, Connecticut, Guam, Hawaii, Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, Oregon, and Vermont. Bottlebill.org (2015).
69.
Keller and Heckman LLP (2002).
70.
SourceSuite (2015).
71.
See supra Sect. 23.3.1.
72.
Harvard Food Law and Policy Clinic (2013).
73.
State of Vermont (2015).
74.
Value Chain Management Center (2014).
75.
Value Chain Management Center (2010).
76.
See supra Sect. 23.3.1.
77.
However, the Ontario legislature also made history in 2013 by becoming the first provincial government to pass a bill promising tax credits to farmers who donate surplus food. “The Local Food Act,” an amendment to Bill 36, will give farmers in Ontario a non-refundable 25 % tax credit based on the fair market value of product that they donate to local food banks and community meal programs. Ontario Association of Food Banks (2014).
78.
Value Chain Management Center (2010).
79.
See Appendix.
80.
Recycling Council of Ontario (2010).
81.
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (2014).
82.
Some provinces are already leading the way. For instance, Nova Scotia has banned organic food waste from its landfills since 1998. See Province of Nova Scotia (2014). Meanwhile, Ontario is stepping up its composting program. See Recycling Council of Ontario (2010).
83.
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (2014). See infra Sect. 23.3.2.1.
84.
Government of Canada, Minister of Justice (1999).
85.
Government of Canada, Minister of Justice (1999), Preamble.
86.
Earth911 (2014).
87.
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (2012).
88.
Congreso General De Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (2003). In 2006, the Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT) issued implementing regulations. See Presidente Constitucional de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (2006).
89.
HIS Environment Intelligence Analysis (2015).
90.
Guardian News and Media (2012).
91.
Asamblea Legislativa del Distrito Federal (2003).
92.
Asamblea Legislativa del Distrito Federal (2004).
93.
Asamblea Legislativa del Distrito Federal (2004).
94.
Guardian News and Media (2012).
95.
Guardian News and Media (2012).
96.
See supra Sect. 23.3.3.
97.
See infra Sect. 23.3.4.1.
98.
See supra Sect. 23.3.1.3.
99.
There are, however, some limited city-level initiatives to encourage such practices, such as Curitiba’s Cambio Verde (Green Change) project. This program allows farmers to provide surplus produce to people that bring glass and metal to recycling facilities. See Portal da Prefeitura de Curitiba. Secretario municipal do abastecimiento: programa cambio verde.
100.
Pereira (2010). A second edition of the PNRS was issued for 2011–2015. See Câmara dos Deputados (2012).
101.
Pereira (2010).
102.
See supra Sect. 23.3.2.
103.
Beveridge & Diamond PC (2010).
104.
US-Brazil Joint Initiative on Urban Sustainability (2012).
105.
See supra Sect. 23.3.1.
106.
US-Brazil Joint Initiative on Urban Sustainability (2012).
107.
US-Brazil Joint Initiative on Urban Sustainability (2012).
108.
Pereira (2010), Art. 23.
109.
The European Parliament designated 2014 as the “European Year Against Food Waste.” European Parliament (2013).
110.
In 2005, the UK government-funded charity Waste & Resources Action Program (WRAP) launched the world’s first major research program on food waste. This led to a groundbreaking report in 2008 quantifying the types and amounts of food and drink waste produced by households in England and Wales. See Waste & Resources Action Program (2008). The report’s “shocking” findings revealed that 6.7 million tonnes of food—equal to roughly 1/3 of all food purchased—are thrown away each year, with a dollar value of over £10 billion. Packaging News (2015).
111.
European Union FUSIONS (2015).
112.
Levitan (2013). However, rates within individual Member States vary widely. Norway, Sweden, the Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland, Belgium, Austria, and Germany divert over 97 % of their food waste from landfills (and Copenhagen, Denmark, has banned organic waste from its landfills since 1990). Greece, Bulgaria, Lithuania, and Romania lag behind, with still almost no composting in these countries.
113.
Levitan (2013).
114.
See infra Sect. 23.4.1.
115.
See infra Sect. 23.4.2.
116.
See infra Sect. 23.4.3.
117.
EUR-Lex (2008).
118.
EUR-Lex (2008), Art. 3(1).
119.
See Appendix.
120.
EUR-Lex (2008), Art. 3(4).
121.
See infra Sect. 23.4.3.
122.
EUR-Lex (2008), Preamble (6).
123.
EUR-Lex (2008), Art. 4(1).
124.
EUR-Lex (2008), Art. 4(1).
125.
See supra Sect. 23.3.1.1.
126.
EUR-Lex (2008), Art. 20(a).
127.
EUR-Lex (2008), Art. 23.
128.
See supra Sect. 23.3.1.4.
129.
See infra Sect. 23.4.3.
130.
European Commission, Directorate-General Environment (2009).
131.
European Commission, Directorate-General Environment (2011). An additional 2012 guidance document supplements the guidelines. See European Commission, Directorate-General Environment (2012).
132.
European Commission, Directorate-General Environment (2012), p. 4.
133.
European Commission, Directorate-General Environment (2012), p. 2.
134.
European Commission, Directorate-General Environment (2012), pp. 20–23.
135.
EUR-Lex (1999).
136.
European Environment Agency (2009), p. 7.
137.
European Environment Agency (2009), p. 7.
138.
EUR-Lex (1999), Art. 1(1).
139.
EUR-Lex (1999), Preamble, Part 16.
140.
EUR-Lex (1999), Preamble, Parts 16 and 17.
141.
EUR-Lex (1999), Art. 5(2)(c).
142.
European Environment Agency (2009). The report looks at waste management in five countries and one sub-national region (Estonia, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and the Flemish Region of Belgium). It also includes an econometric analysis of the EU-25 Member States.
143.
European Environment Agency (2009), p. 7.
144.
European Commission, Directorate-General Environment (2015).
145.
EUR-Lex (1994).
146.
The directive “aims to harmonize national measures concerning the management of packaging and packaging waste in order, on the one hand, to prevent any impact thereof on the environment of all Member States as well as of third countries or to reduce such impact … and, on the other hand, to ensure the functioning of the internal market and to avoid obstacles to trade and distortion and restriction of competition within the Community.” EUR-Lex (1994), Art. 1(1).
147.
See supra Sect. 23.4.1.
148.
EUR-Lex (1994), Art. 2(1).
149.
EUR-Lex (1994), Art. 15. See also supra Sect. 23.3.2.1.
150.
EUR-Lex (1994), Art. 1(2).
151.
EUR-Lex (1994), Annex II.
152.
EUR-Lex (1994), Annex II(1).
153.
EUR-Lex (1994), Annex II(2).
154.
EUR-Lex (1994), Annex II(3).
155.
Europa (2011).
156.
See European Commission, Directorate-General Environment (2013), p. 9.
157.
Around 18 % of this recovered waste is composted. Levitan (2013).
158.
German Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2015).
159.
German Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2015).
160.
To compare, the US recycling rate in 2007 was about 33 % (and roughly 43 % for packaging waste). Earth911 (2014).
161.
See supra Sect. 23.4.3.
162.
See infra Sect. 23.4.4.2.
163.
Earth911 (2014).
164.
German Federal Government (2000).
165.
German Federal Government (2000), Art. 2(2). The act specifically covers “materials that are to be disposed of pursuant to the Animal Carcass Disposal Act (Tierkörperbeseitigungsgesetz) to the Meat Hygiene and Poultry Meat Hygiene Acts (Fleischhygienegesetz; Geflügelfleischhygienegesetz), to the Act on Foodstuffs and Commodities (Lebensmittel- and Bedarfsgegenständegesetz), to the Milk and Margarine Act (Milch- and Margarinegesetz), to the Epizootic Diseases Act (Tierseuchengesetz), to the Plant Protection Act (Pflanzenschutzgesetz) and pursuant to the statutory ordinances issued on the basis of these acts.” German Federal Government (2000), Art. 2(2)(1).
166.
German Federal Government (2000), Art. 2(1).
167.
German Federal Government (2000), Art. 20(1). See also supra Sect. 23.3.2.1.
168.
Earth911 (2014). This figure includes solid, packaging, liquid, gaseous, hazardous, radioactive, and medical wastes.
169.
German Federal Government (1998). The ordinance is also called the “German Packaging and Waste Avoidance Law.” The ordinance has been amended at least six times (most recently in 2014) to address such things as refining the definitions of key terms (like “transport packaging”) and specifying the responsibilities of producers and vendors in the e-commerce sector. Interpack Processes and Packaging (2014).
170.
See supra Sect. 23.4.3.
171.
See supra Sect. 23.3.2.1.
172.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2013b). Notably, the ordinance eliminates incineration as a waste disposal option. This encourages more environmentally-friendly disposal options, like composting.
173.
See supra Sect. 23.4.4.
174.
Neumayer (2000).
175.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2013b).
176.
See Neumayer (2000).
177.
Worldwatch Institute (2013).
178.
See infra Sect. 23.5.1.1.
179.
Public Radio International (2013).
180.
Hirsch and Harmanci (2013).
181.
Zhu (2014).
182.
United Nations Environment Programme. Circular economy.
183.
See infra Sect 23.5.1.2.
184.
See infra Sect 23.5.1.3.
185.
China Daily USA (2014).
186.
China Daily USA (2014).
187.
China Daily USA (2014).
188.
Japan’s Food Recycling Law is another example. See infra Sect. 23.5.2.1.
189.
FDI Invest in China (2008).
190.
FDI Invest in China (2008), Art. 1.
191.
See supra Sect. 23.3.2.1.
192.
FDI Invest in China (2008), Art. 1.
193.
Zhu (2014).
194.
Zhu (2014).
195.
See supra Sect. 23.4.3.
196.
Zhu (2014).
197.
President of the People’s Republic of China (2002).
198.
President of the People’s Republic of China (2002), Art. 1.
199.
President of the People’s Republic of China (2002), Art. 28.
200.
President of the People’s Republic of China (2002), Art. 23.
201.
President of the People’s Republic of China (2002), Art. 23.
202.
President of the People’s Republic of China (2002), Art. 23.
203.
See supra Sect. 23.5.1.2.
204.
See supra Sect. 23.5.1.1.
205.
Marra (2013).
206.
Global Environment Centre Foundation (2011). The law was revised in 2007.
207.
Global Environment Centre Foundation (2011), Art. 2(2).
208.
Marra (2013). In these “recycling loop” systems, recycling facilities work symbiotically with industrial and urban areas to improve recycling systems.
209.
Marra (2013).
210.
Marra (2013).
211.
Government of Japan, Ministry of the Environment (1995). The government amended the law in 2000 to increase the scope of covered business entities and the types of materials included in the recycling targets.
212.
Government of Japan, Ministry of the Environment (1995).
213.
Previously, municipal governments had sole responsibility for handling packaging waste.
214.
Government of Japan, Ministry of the Environment (1995).
215.
See supra Sect. 23.3.2.1.
216.
See supra Sect. 23.5.2.1.
217.
See supra Sect. 23.5.1.
218.
Kazmin (2014).
219.
Kazmin (2014). As a result, one of the Indian government’s current priorities is to modernize the country’s food supply chain by attracting investment in things like cold storage and refrigerated trucks.
220.
See infra Sect. 23.5.3.1.
221.
Government of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests (2011). The Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules prohibit the use of recycled or compostable plastic in carry bags used for storing, carrying, dispensing, or packaging food products. In other words, they require all foodstuffs to be packed in virgin plastic.
222.
Government of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests (2000). The rules were put forth by a Committee appointed by the Supreme Court of India, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), and the Government of India (GoI). The Supreme Court monitors compliance with the MSW rules through the High Courts in each State.
223.
Government of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests (2000), Art. 4(1). See, for example, Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (2004).
224.
Hirsch and Harmanci (2013).
225.
Nahman and de Lange (2013).
226.
Blaine (2013).
227.
See supra Sect. 23.5.3.
228.
Around 27 % is lost during processing and packaging, 26 % in agricultural production, and 17 % in distribution. Just 4 % of food waste occurs after it has reached consumers. Blaine (2013).
229.
See infra Sect. 23.6.1.1.
230.
See infra Sect. 23.6.1.1.
231.
Republic of South Africa, Department of Environmental Affairs (2013). This program calls for local and national public authorities to work with the private sector to divert biodegradable waste from landfills.
232.
Southern African Legal Information Institute (2014). The act was amended in 2014.
233.
See supra Sect. 23.4.
234.
Southern African Legal Information Institute (2014), Sect. 2(iv).
235.
See supra Sect. 23.3.2.1.
236.
Republic of South Africa, Department of Environmental Affairs (2011). The NWMS was established under Sect. 6(1) of the NEM:WA.
237.
Republic of South Africa, Department of Environmental Affairs (2011).
238.
Republic of South Africa, Department of Environmental Affairs (2011).
239.
Australian Government, Department of the Environment, Waste, Heritage and the Arts (2010).
240.
Australian Government, Department of the Environment (2011).
241.
See infra Sect. 23.7.1. In addition to the National Waste Policy, many regional governments have passed waste reduction and/or recycling laws and regulations. For instance, South Australia’s Zero Waste SA Act of 2004 aims to eliminate waste from going to landfills. See Appendix.
242.
Australia’s “empty space” regulations for food packaging limit the maximum allowable empty space depending on the category of product. Permissible thresholds range from 25–40 %, with a 25 % limit for cereals and 40 % for more fragile snack foods like chips. Page (2014). Such restrictions are a growing trend worldwide, with similar regulations in place in some US states, Canada, Western and Eastern Europe, South Africa, Australia, Brazil, China, Japan, Taiwan, Tunisia, and South Korea. State of Oregon, Department of Environmental Quality (2005).
243.
See Australasian Legal Information Institute (2012). Australia’s Heavy Vehicle National Law (HVNL) and its regulations entered into force in early 2014 in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, and Victoria (but not yet in the Northern Territory or Western Australia). The HVNL aims to achieve greater efficiencies in the country’s commercial transportation sector, with provisions on vehicle specifications, curfews, load limitations, and speed and travel time restrictions. It is not unique to the food sector; however, its provisions do apply to qualifying food transporters and retailers. Therefore, the law has the potential to improve the energy efficiency of Australia’s food supply chain.
244.
Australian Government, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage, and the Arts (2013). The National Waste Policy is agreed to by all Australian environment ministers and endorsed by the Council of Australian Governments.
245.
Australian Government, Department of the Environment. About the national waste policy.
246.
Australian Government, Department of the Environment. About the national waste policy.
247.
Australian Government, Department of the Environment. About the national waste policy.
248.
See supra Sect. 23.7.
249.
See supra Sect. 23.4.
250.
See supra Sect. 23.3.4.
251.
See Appendix. Countries and regions embracing the “polluter pays”/EPR approach include the Australian Capital Territory, Canada, the European Union, Israel, Mexico, Russia, and South Africa.
252.
See supra Sect. 23.4.4.
253.
See Appendix.
254.
See supra Sect. 23.3.4.1.
255.
See supra Sect. 23.4.2.
256.
See supra Sect. 23.5.2.1.
257.
See supra Sect. 23.3.1.4.
258.
See supra Sect. 23.4.
259.
See supra Sect. 23.5.1.
260.
See supra Sect. 23.5.2.
261.
See supra Sect. 23.7.
262.
See Afun (2009).

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Yale School of Law, New Haven, CT, USA
Leslie Couvillion

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Appendix

Region	Country/state	Citation	Title	Year passed	Summary or subsections applicable to regulatory issue
Africa	Kenya	Act No. 8 of 1999, as amended by Act No. 6 of 2006, Act No. 17 of 2006, Act No. 5 of 2007, Act No. 6 of 2009	Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act (EMCA) (Cap. 387)	1999	Governs environmental management generally • Sect. 87 prohibits disposing of any wastes “in a manner that would cause pollution to the environment or ill health to any person.” • Section 87(4) obligates “every person whose activities generate waste to employ measures essential to minimize wastes through treatment, reclamation and recycling.”
Africa	Kenya	L.N. No. 121 of 2006; printed in Kenya Gazette Supplement No. 69 of 29 Sept 2006, pp. 1-63	Environmental Management and Coordination (Waste Management) Regulations (Cap. 387)	2006	Implement the EMCA; define general rules for waste management and specific rules for certain waste streams (including solid waste, industrial waste, hazardous waste, and pesticides and toxic substances); embrace “cleaner production” principles
Africa	Nigeria	S.I.15 of 1991	National Environmental Protection (Management of Solid and Hazardous Wastes) Regulations	1991	Address the collection, treatment, and disposal of solid and hazardous wastes from industrial and municipal sources; contain highly-detailed provisions for certain waste streams Part II envisions a multi-pronged approach with information-sharing and monitoring among private operators, industries, and public agencies
Africa	Nigeria	Act No. 25 of 2007	National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (Establishment) Act (NESREA)	2007	Establishes the National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency as the major federal body in charge of environmental protection; repeals the now-defunct Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA)
Africa	South Africa	Act No. 73 of 1989, as amended by the National Environmental Laws Amendment Act of 2009	Environment Conservation Act	1989	Governs environmental protection generally; sets out national environmental conservation policy • Part IV contains provisions on waste management • Part V covers agriculture and MSW disposal
Africa	South Africa	No. R. 543 of 2002	Plastic Bags Regulations	2002	Prohibit the manufacture, trade and commercial distribution of specified plastic bags Enacted under section 24 (D) of the Environment Conservation Act
Africa	South Africa	No. R. 625 of 2003	Plastic Carrier Bags and Plastic Flat Bags Regulations	2003	Prohibit the manufacture, trade and commercial distribution of domestically produced and imported plastic carrier bags and plastic flat bags Enacted under section 24 (D) of the Environment Conservation Act
Africa	South Africa	Act No. 68 of 2008	Consumer Protection Act	2008	Puts packaging disposal and product labelling burdens on industry • Sect. 22 requires that packaging labels identify the type of packaging and its recyclability. • Sect. 59 requires suppliers to accept return of goods at no charge to consumer if any national legislation prohibits the disposal or deposit of the goods or their components into a common waste collection system.
Africa	South Africa	Act No. 59 of 2008, as amended by Act No. 26 of 2014	National Environmental Management: Waste Act (NEM: WA)	2008	Governs waste management; sets up waste management hierarchy; embraces “polluter pays”/EPR principle sets goals of: • 25% diversion of recyclables from landfills by 2016; and • ultimate phase-out of biodegradable waste from landfills Primarily implemented by the 2011 National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS).
Americas	Brazil	Lei n. 12.305/10	National Policy of Solid Waste/Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos (PNRS)	2010	Governs solid waste management; focuses on sustainable measures (including packaging requirements); calls for integrated, multi-level management plans
Americas	Brazil (Sergipe)	Lei n. 7.465 de 20 de Julho de 2012; Publicado no Diário Oficial No 26529, do dia 24/07/2012	Law No. 7.645 on the Obligation of Using Biodegradable Packaging/Lei No. 7.645 de Dispõe sobre a utilização obrigatória de embalagens biodegradáveis, e dá providências correlatas	2012	Requires use of biodegradable packaging for materials used for commercial purposes within the State of Sergipe
Americas	Canada	S.C. 1999, c. 33	Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA)	1999	Aims to protect environmental and human health through pollution prevention; embraces “polluter pays”/EPR principle Part 7 contains general waste management and prevention provisions (although most of the relevant authority is delegated to provincial governments)
Americas	Canada (Manitoba)	C.C.S.M., c. W40	Waste Reduction and Prevention Act	1990	Aims to reduce and prevent waste production and disposal consistent with sustainable development principles
Americas	Canada (Manitoba)	Man. Reg. 195/2008	Packaging and Printed Paper Stewardship Regulation	2008	Requires affected companies to register as product stewards and to remit fees to cover up to 80% of the cost of municipal recycling programmes
Americas	Canada (Ontario)	R.S.O. 1990, c. E.18	Environmental Assessment Act	1990	Regulates environmental assessments Part II addresses municipal waste disposal
Americas	Canada (Ontario)	R.S.O. 1990, c. E.19	Environmental Protection Act	1990	Aims to protect and conserve the natural environment • Part V covers waste management • Part IX covers packaging and container waste Implemented by Regulation on General Waste Management (R.R.O. 1990; O.Reg. 362)
Americas	Canada (Ontario)	O. Reg 104/94	Regulation on Packaging Audits and Packaging Reduction Work Plans	1994	Requires audits of certain manufacturers and importers to examine impacts of packaging on waste management; requires packaging reduction plans under some circumstances to reduce the amount of waste resulting from packaging
Americas	Canada (Ontario)	O. Reg. 101/94	Regulation on Recycling and Composting of Municipal Waste	1994	Requires certain municipalities to implement “blue box” waste management systems • Part III addresses municipal waste recycling depots • Part IV addresses waste recycling sites
Americas	Canada (Ontario)	O. Reg. 102/94	Regulation on Waste Audits and Waste Reduction Work Plans	1994	Requires certain businesses (retailers, schools, hotels, manufacturers, etc.) and construction projects to undergo waste audits, and, under some circumstances, implement plans to reduce, reuse and recycle waste.
Americas	Canada (Ontario)	O. Reg. 103/94	Regulation on Industrial, Commercial and Institutional Source Separation Programs	1994	Requires certain businesses (retailers, schools, hotels, manufacturers, etc.) to implement programs to facilitate source separation of waste for reuse or recycling
Americas	Canada (Ontario)	S.O. 2002, c. 6	Waste Diversion Act	2002	Promotes reducing, reusing and recycling waste; establishes “Waste Diversion Ontario” corporation to develop, implement, and operate waste diversion programmes for designated wastes
Americas	Canada (Ontario)	O. Reg. 273/02	Blue Box Waste Regulation	2002	Designates “blue box” waste as waste consisting of any of the following materials, or any combination of them: 1) glass; 2) metal; 3) paper; 4) plastic; 5) textiles; establishes “Stewardship Ontario” corporation
Americas	Canada (Ontario)	O. Reg. 101/07	Waste Management Projects Regulation	2007	Implements parts of Environmental Assessment Act (Ontario) Part II concerns landfill siting, waste disposal, and energy/fuel use
Americas	Canada (Prince Edward Island)	R.S.P.E.I. 1988, c. E-9	Environmental Protection Act	1988	Aims to manage, protect, and enhance the environment Sects. 13 to 19 cover waste treatment
Americas	Canada (Prince Edward Island)	P.E.I. Reg. EC691/00	Waste Resource Management Regulations	2000	Carry out Sect. 25 of Environmental Protection Act (Prince Edward Island); contain provisions on waste disposal and waste management, including requirements for composting facilities and recycling plants
Americas	Mexico	DOF 19-06-2007	General Law for the Prevention & Integral Management of Wastes/ Ley General Para la Prevención y Gestión Integral de los Residuos (LGPGIR) (Federal Waste Law)	2003	Governs waste management; provides the country’s legal framework on packaging and recycling activities; embraces “polluter pays”/EPR principle Implemented by 2006 Regulation for the General Law for the Prevention & Integral Management of Wastes/Reglamento de la Ley General Para la Prevención y Gestión Integral de los Residuos (DOF 30-11-2006)
Americas	Mexico (Federal District)	Gaceta Oficial del Distrito Federal 22-04-2003	Solid Waste Law of the Federal District/Ley de Residuos Sólidos del Distrito Federal	2003	Regulates solid waste management in Mexico City Implemented by the Regulation for the Solid Waste Law of the Federal District/Reglamento de la Ley de Residuos Sólidos del Distrito Federal (DOF 07-10-2008)
Americas	Mexico (Federal District)	Gaceta Oficial del Distrito Federal 10-02-2004	Amendment of the Solid Waste Law of the Federal District/Decreto por el que se Reforman los Artículos Tercero, Cuarto, Séptimo y Octavo Transitorios de la Ley de Residuos Sólidos del Distrito Federal	2004	Requires households to separate organic and inorganic wastes Amends the Solid Waste Law of the Federal District
Americas	Peru	Law No. 27314	General Law on Solid Waste (The Waste Act)	2000	Establishes rights, duties, powers, and responsibilities of society as a whole to ensure the sanitary and environmentally sound management and handling of solid waste; embraces principles of minimization, environmental risk prevention, and human health and welfare protection; sets norms for recycling operations Implemented by the Rules of the Waste Act (Supreme Decree N° 057-2004- PCM)
Americas	United States	21 U.S.C. § 301 et seq.	Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA)	1938	Regulates food safety, including approval of food packaging materials
Americas	United States	42 U.S.C. § 4321 et seq.	National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)	1969	Requires environmental reviews of major federal actions (including food packaging material approvals)
Americas	United States	42 U.S.C. § 6901 et seq.	Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)	1976	Regulates waste management and recycling; provides general mandates, with most authority delegated to state and local governments
Americas	United States	21 C.F.R. § 170 et seq., 42 FR 14483	Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act (FFDCA), Food Additive Regulations	1977	Regulates food contact substances in packaging
Americas	United States	42 U.S.C. § 1791	Bill Emerson Good Samaritan Food Donation Act	1996	Encourages food donations by shielding donors from liability
Americas	United States (California – City of San Francisco)	Ordinance No. 100-09 (June 9, 2009)	Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance	2009	Sets goal of “virtually zero” landfill waste by 2020 in City of San Francisco
Americas	United States (Vermont)	Act No. 148, 10 V.S.A. § 6602	An act relating to establishing universal recycling of solid waste. (Vermont's Universal Recycling (UR) Law)	2012	Bans landfilling all food scraps by July 1, 2020; bans disposal of recyclable materials (metal, glass, certain plastics, and paper/cardboard) by July 1, 2015.
Asia	China	Order of the President No. 72, adopted in the 28th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the 9th National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China on June 29, 2002	Law of the People's Republic of China on Promotion of Cleaner Production (Cleaner Production Promotion Law)	2002	Aims to: • promote cleaner production; • increase the efficiency of the utilization rate of resources; • reduce and avoid the generation of pollutants; • protect and improve environments; • ensure the health of human beings; and • promote the sustainable development of the economy and society Requires “cleaner production audits” of certain manufacturers
Asia	China	Announcement No. 63 of 2008	Announcement of Ministry of Environmental Protection promulgating the cleaner production standard for wine industry	2008	Implements the Cleaner Production Promotion Law for the country’s wine producers; provides requirements on: • production techniques; • resource and energy use; • waste recycling; and • environmental management
Asia	China	Order of the President No. 4, passed in the 4th meeting of the Standing Committee of the 11th National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China on August 29, 2008	Circular Economy Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China	2008	Aims to promote sustainable development in the nation; introduces policies and instruments for reducing resource consumption and encouraging recycling; embraces a top-down, command-and-control approach
Asia	India	Act No. 29 of 1986	An Act to provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for matters connected therewith (Environment (Protection) Act)	1986	Establishes the powers of the Central Government to protect and improve the environment
Asia	India	S.O. 908(E)	Municipality Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules	2000	Form the backbone of India’s solid waste management policy; charge each municipal authority with developing infrastructure for collecting, storing, segregating, transporting, processing, and disposing of MSW; encourage composting and banning of biodegradable wastes from landfills
Asia	India	S.O. 249(E)	Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules	2011	Prohibit use of recycled or compostable plastic in carry bags used for storing, carrying, dispensing, or packaging food products Implement Sects. 3, 6, and 25 of the Environment (Protection) Act
Asia	India (Maharashtra)	See Maharashtra Pollution Control Board, Circular No. MPCB/RO(HQ)/B: 1508 of 14/03/2011	Maharashtra Plastic Carry Bags (Manufacture and Use) Rules	2006	Supplement the Central Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules within Maharashtra
Asia	India (Tamil Nadu)	FAOLEX No: LEX-FAOC052632	A Bill to provide for prohibition of sale, storage, transport and use of certain plastic articles for the protection of environment and public health and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto (Tamil Nadu Plastic Articles (Prohibition of Sale, Storage, Transport and Use) Act)	2002	Prohibits the sale, storage, transport and use of certain plastic articles (including carry bags, cups, plates, and tumblers); forbids restaurant owners from using plastic articles in their establishments
Asia	Israel	Law No. 5753-1993	Collection and Disposal of Waste for Recycling Law	1993	Sets out principles and basic legal framework for recycling in Israel; authorizes municipalities to pass bylaws specifying procedures for waste collection, disposal, and recycling
Asia	Israel	Law No. 5759-1999	Deposit on Beverage Containers Law	1999	Requires a fully refundable deposit on most single-serve beverage containers Implemented by 2001 Regulations Carried out by ELA Recycling Corporation (a private non-profit organization)
Asia	Israel	Law No. 5771-2011	Regulation of Processing of Packaging Law (Packaging Law)	2011	Regulates both production and processing of packaging material waste; embraces “polluter pays”/EPR principle; aims to: • minimize packaging volume; • prevent waste dumping; and • encourage recycling Increases local taxes for waste storage in landfills (with revenues to go toward recycling facilities and infrastructure); sets concrete recycling targets, including zero landfilling waste by 2020
Asia	Japan	Act No. 112 of June 16, 1995	Act on the Promotion of Sorted Collection and Recycling of Containers and Packaging (Container and Packaging Recycling Law)	1995	Forms basis for all official recycling efforts in Japan; aims to reduce garbage levels and use recycled containers and packages efficiently
Asia	Japan	Law No. 176 of 2001	Act on Promotion of Recycling of Food Circulation Resources (Food Recycling Law)	2001	Calls for reducing food waste through recycling food resources; requires municipalities to create “recycling loops” for feed and fertilizers
Asia	Russia	Law No. 89-FZ	Federal Law on industrial and consumer waste (Law on Waste)	1998	Russia’s primary federal waste management regulation A proposed 2014 bill would amend the law to allow for landfill diversion targets and to embrace “polluter pays”/EPR principles
Asia	Russia (Astrakhan)	Regional Law No. 40/2004-OZ	Law on Domestic and Non-domestic Waste	2004	Implements federal Law on Waste
Asia	Russia (Buryatia)	Regional Law No. 1254-IV	Law on Domestic and Non-domestic Waste	2010	Implements federal Law on Waste
Asia	South Korea	As amended by Act No. 13 038, Jan. 1, 2015	Wastes Control Act	1986	Provides basic framework on waste management; requires Minister of Environment to prepare master waste management plan every 10 years
Asia	South Korea	As amended by Act No. 8957, Mar. 21, 2008	Act on Promotion of Saving and Recycling of Resources	1992	Provides basic framework for waste recycling; requires Minister of Environment to prepare recycling plan every 5 years
Australia/New Zealand	Australia	Law No. 21 of 2012	Heavy Vehicle National Law (HVNL)	2012	Aims to achieve greater efficiencies in the country’s commercial transportation sector, with provisions on vehicle specifications, curfews, load limitations, and speed and travel time restrictions
Australia/New Zealand	Australia (Australian Capital Territory)	Act No. a2001-31	Waste Minimisation Act	2001	Governs waste management at a provincial level; embraces “polluter pays”/EPR principle; work to: • establish a waste management hierarchy; • promote environmentally responsible transporting, reprocessing and handling of waste; • seek integrated waste planning and services
Australia/New Zealand	Australia (New South Wales)	Act No. 58 of 2001	Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Act	2001	Promotes waste avoidance and resource recovery; creates a Waste Fund
Australia/New Zealand	Australia (New South Wales)	LW 17 October 2014 (2014 No. 666)	Protection of the Environment Operations (Waste) Regulation	2014	Provides specifications on waste management, transport, and disposal; enacted under the Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997
Australia/New Zealand	Australia (Northern Territory)	Act No. 71 of 1998	Waste Management and Pollution Control Act	1998	Aims to reduce waste generation, increase re-use and recycling, and effectively manage waste disposal Part 6 provides for environmental audits Implemented by Waste Management and Pollution Control (Administration) Regulations.
Australia/New Zealand	Australia (Queensland)	FAOLEX No: LEX-FAOC107497	Waste Reduction and Recycling Act	2011	Aims at promoting waste avoidance and reduction as well as resource recovery and efficiency actions; establishes shared responsibility between government, business and industry and the community for waste management; creates Waste and Environment Fund; levies taxes at certain waste disposal sites Implemented by 2011 Waste Reduction and Recycling Regulation
Australia/New Zealand	Australia (South Australia)	Gazette 6.5.2004, p. 1222	An Act to establish a statutory corporation, Zero Waste SA, with the function of reforming waste management in the State; and for other purposes (Zero Waste SA Act)	2004	Establishes a statutory corporation, Zero Waste SA, to reform waste management in the State; aims to eliminate waste generation as well as the landfilling of waste; promotes resource recovery and recycling Implemented by Zero Waste SA Regulations 2006
Australia/New Zealand	Australia (Tasmania)	Act No. 83 of 1994	Environmental Management and Pollution Control Act (EMPCA)	1994	Governs environment protection and pollution control generally Relevant implementing regulations include: • Environmental Management and Pollution Control (Controlled Waste Tracking) Regulations (2010); and • Environmental Management and Pollution Control (Waste Management) Regulations (2010)
Australia/New Zealand	Australia (Western Australia)	Act No. 36 of 2007	Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Act	2007	Establishes Waste Authority charged with setting out a long term strategy for continuous improvement of waste services, waste avoidance, and resource recovery and for waste reduction, resource recovery, and landfill diversion; calls for yearly business plans, waste plans and of product stewardship plans
Australia/New Zealand	New Zealand	Act No. 89 of 2008	Waste Minimisation Act	2008	Governs waste management; calls for levy on landfill waste and mandatory waste reporting; establishes Waste Advisory Board • Part 1, Sect. 3 encourages “waste minimisation and a decrease in waste disposal in order to protect the environment from harm and provide environmental, social, economic, and cultural benefits” • Part II encourages (or sometimes requires) product stewardship schemes (including bottle deposit systems) that hold all parties involved in a product’s lifecycle responsible for managing end-of-life environmental impacts
Europe	European Union	O.J. L. 365, 31.12.1994, pp. 10–23	European Parliament and Council Directive 94/62/EC of 20 December 1994 on packaging and packaging waste (Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive)	1994	Aims to protect the environment and maintain robust internal EU trading market; sets recycling targets for packaging waste; mandates environmental “essential requirements” for all packaging; embraces “polluter pays”/EPR principle
Europe	European Union	O.J. L. 182, 16.7.1999, pp. 1–19	Council Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste (Landfill Directive)	1999	Sets short- and long-term landfill diversion targets for Member States, including goals for reducing amount of biodegradable municipal waste going to landfills
Europe	European Union	O.J. L. 338, 13.11.2004, pp. 4–17	Framework Regulation EC 1935/2004 on Food Contact Materials	2004	Sets requirements for food contact materials; requires good manufacturing practices; requires materials to be traceable throughout the production chain
Europe	European Union	O.J. L. 312, 22.11.2008, pp. 3–30	Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste (Waste Framework Directive)	2008	Establishes basic waste management principles for EU Member States; provides general legislative framework for collecting, transporting, recovering, and disposing of waste • Art. 4 establishes waste management hierarchy • Art. 22 addresses composting
Europe	European Union	O.J. L. 54, 26.2.2011, pp. 1–254	Commission Regulation (EU) No 142/2011 implementing Regulation (EC) No 1069/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down health rules as regards animal by-products and derived products not intended for human consumption and implementing Council Directive 97/78/EC as regards certain samples and items exempt from veterinary checks at the border under that Directive (Animal By-Products (ABP) Rules)	2011	Regulates materials of animal-origin not consumed by people (including certain by-products of the food production chain, such as fallen stock)
Europe	European Union—Germany	Federal Law Gazette I, p. 2705, as amended by the Act of 3 May 2000 (Federal Law Gazette I, p. 632)	An act for Promoting Closed Substance Cycle Waste Management and Ensuring Environmentally Compatible Waste Disposal/Gesetz zur Förderung der Kreislaufwirtschaft und Sicherung der umnweltverträglichen Beseitigung von Abfällen (Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act)	1994	Establishes Germany’s national waste management policy framework; advocates waste avoidance, recovery, and environmentally compatible waste disposal; embraces “polluter pays”/EPR principle
Europe	European Union—Germany	Federal Law Gazette I, p. 2379, as amended by the Fifth Amending Ordinance of 2 April 2008 (Federal Law Gazette I, p. 531)	Ordinance on the Avoidance and Recovery of Packaging Waste of 21 August 1998/Verpackungsverordnung—VerpackV (Packaging Waste Ordinance or Packaging and Waste Avoidance Law)	1998	Implements the EU Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive; requires retailers to install recycling bins for primary and secondary packaging; imposes mandatory beverage deposits; prohibits incineration as waste disposal option; embraces “polluter pays”/EPR principle
Europe	European Union—United Kingdom	No. 1941 of 2003	Packaging (Essential Requirements) Regulations	2003	Implement provisions of the EU Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive regarding “essential requirements” for packaging; embrace “polluter pays”/EPR principle
Europe	European Union—United Kingdom (England and Wales)	No. 1889 of 2012	Waste (England and Wales) (Amendment) Regulations	2012	Implement the EU Waste Framework Directive; require waste collection authorities to collect waste paper, metal, plastic, and glass separately (from both household and commercial/industrial sources) beginning in January 2015
Europe	European Union—United Kingdom (England, Scotland, and Wales)	No. 871 of 2007	Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging Waste) Regulations (England, Scotland, and Wales)	2007	Implement the EU Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive; address industry’s role in meeting the UK’s recovery and recycling targets; establish a statutory producer responsibility regime by placing legal obligation on businesses that make or use packaging to ensure that a proportion of the packaging is recovered and recycled; embraces “polluter pays” and “collective producer responsibility” principles
Europe	European Union—United Kingdom (Northern Ireland)	No. 198 of 2007	Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging Waste) Regulations (Northern Ireland)	2007	Implement the EU Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive in Northern Ireland
Europe	European Union—United Kingdom (Scotland)	S.S.I. No. 148 of 2012	Waste (Scotland) Regulations	2012	Implement the EU Waste Framework Directive; provide for the separate collection and treatment of “wet” food waste from other “dry” recyclable waste streams
International	Parties to Protocol	37 I.L.M. 22 (1998)	Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change	1997	Sets binding GHG reduction targets, potentially achievable through agriculture and food sector reforms
International	Member States of the World Trade Organization (WTO)	31 U.S.T. 405, 1186 U.N.T.S. 276	Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement)	1995	Aims to facilitate global trading markets; prohibits setting technical regulations, standards, testing, and certification procedure requirements that create unnecessary obstacles to trade
International	Member States of the World Trade Organization (WTO)	1867 U.N.T.S. 483	Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement)	1995	Sets similar constraints as the TBT Agreement on Member States’ food safety, animal, and plant health measures

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Couvillion, L. (2017). Environmental Protection and Clean Energy Overlaps. In: Steier, G., Patel, K. (eds) International Farm Animal, Wildlife and Food Safety Law. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18002-1_23

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18002-1_23
Published: 10 January 2017
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