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International Farm Animal, Wildlife and Food Safety Law pp 41–81Cite as

Globalized Perspectives on Infectious Disease Management and Trade in Africa: A Conceptual Framework for Assessing Risk in Developing Country Settings

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Abstract

In the era of globalization, internationalized representations of infectious disease threats have profound implications for understandings of infectious disease problems and their management in developing countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. By examining the policy implications of the key narratives around public health, animal health and trade, it becomes possible to clarify the relationship between global understandings of infectious disease risk and their impact on the development of local responses to disease problems. We highlight the tensions that resource-constrained countries face in the nexus of animal health-public health and trade, including the perception that resource-constrained countries are both source and victims of potential infectious disease threats. Given this scenario, it is important to think about how developing countries, particularly those in Sub-Saharan Africa, can approach infectious disease risk management as it relates to pandemic scale threats such as avian and pandemic influenza. We outline some of the key considerations in defining and assessing disease risk using avian and pandemic influenza in Zambia as an example. We conclude that the key to the feasibility of the analysis of the risk of multi-sectoral affecting emerging infectious diseases such as zoonotic avian influenza is flexibility in how risk is framed across the public health, animal health and trade systems.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Lloyd-Smith et al. (2009).

  2. 2.

    Reperant et al. (2013).

  3. 3.

    Greger (2007).

  4. 4.

    Reperant et al. (2013).

  5. 5.

    Kimball (2006), Greger (2007).

  6. 6.

    Huynen et al. (2005).

  7. 7.

    Lee et al. (2002).

  8. 8.

    Navarro (1998).

  9. 9.

    ibid.

  10. 10.

    Mann (1990).

  11. 11.

    Brown (2004).

  12. 12.

    Ibid.

  13. 13.

    Mwacalimba (2012).

  14. 14.

    Cowen and Morales (2002).

  15. 15.

    Bettcher et al. (2000).

  16. 16.

    Ibid., Aginam (2002), Hoffman (2010).

  17. 17.

    Lee and Koivusalo (2005).

  18. 18.

    Lang (1999).

  19. 19.

    Lee et al. (2002).

  20. 20.

    Kerry and Lee (2007).

  21. 21.

    Rowell (2003).

  22. 22.

    Kimball (2006).

  23. 23.

    Lipson (2001).

  24. 24.

    Shaffer et al. (2005).

  25. 25.

    Lee and Koivusalo (2005).

  26. 26.

    Morse (2004), Kahn (2006).

  27. 27.

    Fevre et al. (2006).

  28. 28.

    Cowen and Morales (2002), Morse (2004), Karesh et al. (2005).

  29. 29.

    ALive (2006).

  30. 30.

    Aginam (2002).

  31. 31.

    WHO/WTO (2002).

  32. 32.

    Howse (2004).

  33. 33.

    Merianos and Peiris (2005).

  34. 34.

    Ibid.

  35. 35.

    Blancou et al. (2005).

  36. 36.

    Bruckner (2009); OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code 2010, available at http://web.oie.int/eng/normes/mcode/en_index.htm.

  37. 37.

    Thiermann (2005).

  38. 38.

    Zepeda et al. (2005).

  39. 39.

    Merianos and Peiris (2005).

  40. 40.

    Fidler (2004a), Lee and Fidler (2007).

  41. 41.

    Wilkinson and Pickett (2006).

  42. 42.

    Thomson et al. (2004).

  43. 43.

    Rweyemamu and Astudillo (2002).

  44. 44.

    Ibid, Upton and Otte (2004).

  45. 45.

    Hampson (1997), Domenech et al. (2006), Kruk (2008).

  46. 46.

    Domenech et al. (2006).

  47. 47.

    Scoones (2010).

  48. 48.

    Securitization of health is the process through which infectious diseases are viewed as national security threats, particularly with regards to bioterrorism.

  49. 49.

    Lo Yuk-ping and Thomas (2010).

  50. 50.

    Shaffer et al. (2005).

  51. 51.

    Rweyemamu and Astudillo (2002).

  52. 52.

    Cumming (2010a).

  53. 53.

    Ibid.

  54. 54.

    Labonte and Sanger (2006).

  55. 55.

    Roningen and DeRosa (2003).

  56. 56.

    Delgado et al. (1999); Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome; International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi. Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper 28.

  57. 57.

    WTO World Trade Report 2004.

  58. 58.

    Lee and Koivusalo (2005).

  59. 59.

    Beck (1992).

  60. 60.

    Giddens (1998), pp. 23–34.

  61. 61.

    see also Lupton (1999).

  62. 62.

    Ibid.

  63. 63.

    see Stirling and Mayer (2000), Millstone (2007), Stirling and Scoones (2009).

  64. 64.

    Douglas and Wildavsky (1982).

  65. 65.

    Ibid.

  66. 66.

    see also Horlick-Jones (1998), Pidgeon (1999), Slavic (1999).

  67. 67.

    Douglas and Wildavsky (1982), Lupton (1999).

  68. 68.

    Xu et al. (1999), Webster et al. (2002).

  69. 69.

    Shortridge et al. (1998).

  70. 70.

    de Jong et al. (1997).

  71. 71.

    Shortridge et al. (1998).

  72. 72.

    Fidler (2004b), WHO (2005a), Webster and Hulse (2005).

  73. 73.

    Shortridge et al. (1998).

  74. 74.

    Sims et al. (2005).

  75. 75.

    WHO (2005c).

  76. 76.

    Ibid.

  77. 77.

    Alexander (2007), Paul et al. (2010).

  78. 78.

    WHO (2005c).

  79. 79.

    Sims et al. (2005).

  80. 80.

    GRAIN (2007).

  81. 81.

    WHO (2004).

  82. 82.

    WHO (2005b).

  83. 83.

    Sims et al. (2005), Sims and Narrod (2008).

  84. 84.

    WHO (2004).

  85. 85.

    WHO (2005c).

  86. 86.

    Sims et al. (2005).

  87. 87.

    WHO (2005c).

  88. 88.

    Beigel et al. (2005).

  89. 89.

    WHO (2005b).

  90. 90.

    Chen et al. (2005), Webster and Govorkova (2006), Alexander (2007), Cattoli et al. (2009).

  91. 91.

    WHO (2005b).

  92. 92.

    Webster and Hulse (2005); Sims et al. (2005); Sims and Narrod (2008).

  93. 93.

    Scoones (2010).

  94. 94.

    Scoones and Forster (2010).

  95. 95.

    see Hampson (1997).

  96. 96.

    Pitrelli and Sturloni (2007).

  97. 97.

    Osterholm (2005).

  98. 98.

    Yee et al. (2009).

  99. 99.

    van den Berg (2009).

  100. 100.

    Normile (2006), Chen et al. (2005).

  101. 101.

    e.g. Weber and Stilianakis (2007).

  102. 102.

    Scoones and Forster (2010).

  103. 103.

    Stirling and Scoones (2009); also Scoones and Forster (2010).

  104. 104.

    Nicoll (2005).

  105. 105.

    GRAIN (2006a), GRAIN (2006b), GRAIN (2007).

  106. 106.

    WHO (2004).

  107. 107.

    WHO/AFRO (2005).

  108. 108.

    Garrett and Fidler (2007), Fidler (2008).

  109. 109.

    Elbe (2010).

  110. 110.

    Ibid.

  111. 111.

    Burgos and Otte (2008).

  112. 112.

    WHO (2005c), ALive (2006).

  113. 113.

    Mwacalimba (2012).

  114. 114.

    Mwacalimba and Green (2015).

  115. 115.

    Ibid.

  116. 116.

    Mwacalimba (2012).

  117. 117.

    Mwacalimba (2013).

  118. 118.

    LSUAC (2008).

  119. 119.

    This is based on the FAO poultry classification system in which Sector 1 represent integrated poultry production systems characterized the use of standard operating procedures, high level biosecurity and commercial marketing of birds and their products. Sector 2 production is systems also commercially focused, in which moderate to high biosecurity is practiced. Ideally, poultry are kept indoors continuously, thus preventing contact with other poultry or wildlife. Sector 3 production systems are understood to mean low to minimal biosecurity production with birds and products entering live bird markets. Examples include caged layer farming with birds in open sheds, farms with free ranging poultry or farms producing chickens and waterfowl such as ducks. Sector 4 are systems of production in which there is minimal biosecurity and chickens and their products are consumed locally. FAO Avian Influenza Fact Sheet. Available at http://www.fao.org/docs/eims/upload/224897/factsheet_productionsectors_en.pdf.

  120. 120.

    Mwacalimba (2012).

  121. 121.

    Ibid.

  122. 122.

    Mwacalimba and Green (2015).

  123. 123.

    Ibid.

  124. 124.

    Ibid.

  125. 125.

    Douglas and Wildavsky (1982), Horlick-Jones (1998), Slovic (1998).

  126. 126.

    Murray et al. (2004).

  127. 127.

    Covello and Merkhofer (1993), p. 318.

  128. 128.

    According to Millstone (2007), the term comes from the red cover of a seminal report produced in 1983 by the National Research Council in the US. This report presented a version of inverted decisionism or technocratic model that is very similar to the OIE risk analysis framework.

  129. 129.

    Vose (2000), WHO/FAO (2006), OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code 2010.

  130. 130.

    Thiermann (2005), OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code 2010.

  131. 131.

    MacDiarmid and Pharo (2003).

  132. 132.

    e.g. Clements et al. (2010).

  133. 133.

    WHO/FAO (2006), Murray et al. (2004).

  134. 134.

    Vose (2000), Murray et al. (2004).

  135. 135.

    Vose et al. (2001), Pfeiffer (2007).

  136. 136.

    Van Zwanenberg and Millstone (2006), Millstone (2007).

  137. 137.

    Stirling and Mayer (2000), Stirling and Scoones (2009).

  138. 138.

    Millstone (2007).

  139. 139.

    Cumming (2010b).

  140. 140.

    Millstone (2007).

  141. 141.

    Hueston’s discussion speaks of the OIE risk analysis framework in very general ways.

  142. 142.

    MacDiarmid and Pharo (2003).

  143. 143.

    Millstone (2007).

  144. 144.

    Mwacalimba (2012).

  145. 145.

    e.g. Vallat and Pastoret (2009).

  146. 146.

    Hueston (2003).

  147. 147.

    Mwacalimba (2013).

  148. 148.

    Mwacalimba (2012).

  149. 149.

    This definition explicitly mentions commodities intended for importation because the Code’s purpose is to facilitate free and safe trade.

  150. 150.

    OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code 2010, p. xvii.

  151. 151.

    Murray et al. (2004), p. v.

  152. 152.

    Mwacalimba (2012).

  153. 153.

    Ibid.

  154. 154.

    Slovic (1998).

  155. 155.

    OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code 2010. p. xxii.

  156. 156.

    MacDiarmid and Pharo (2003).

  157. 157.

    Pharo (2003).

  158. 158.

    MacDiarmid and Pharo (2003).

  159. 159.

    Wooldridge (2000).

  160. 160.

    Leach et al. (2010).

  161. 161.

    Mwacalimba 2013.

  162. 162.

    Zambia’s National Response Plan on avian influenza, 2008 version, p. 6.

  163. 163.

    GRAIN (2007).

  164. 164.

    According to Zambia’s National Response Plan for Avian and Human Influenza (2008), the country has four poultry production systems. These are commercial sector, emerging sector, small scale (also called backyard production) sector and the Village/free range sector.

  165. 165.

    Mwacalimba (2013).

  166. 166.

    Horlick-Jones (1998).

  167. 167.

    Mwacalimba and Green (2015).

  168. 168.

    WHO (2010).

  169. 169.

    OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code 2010, p. xxii.

  170. 170.

    Murray et al. (2004).

  171. 171.

    Vose et al. (2001).

  172. 172.

    MacDiarmid and Pharo (2003).

  173. 173.

    Mwacalimba (2013).

  174. 174.

    Vose et al. (2001), p. 814.

  175. 175.

    OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code 2010, p. xxii.

  176. 176.

    Millstone (2007).

  177. 177.

    see MacDiarmid and Pharo (2003).

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  1. Zoetis, Florham Park, New Jersey, USA

    Kennedy Mwacalimba BVM, MSc, DLSHTM, PhD

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    Gabriela Steier

  2. Food Law International, LLP, Washington, D.C., USA

    Kiran K. Patel

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Mwacalimba, K. (2017). Globalized Perspectives on Infectious Disease Management and Trade in Africa: A Conceptual Framework for Assessing Risk in Developing Country Settings. In: Steier, G., Patel, K. (eds) International Farm Animal, Wildlife and Food Safety Law. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18002-1_2

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