Abstract
Nuclear energy was an assured energy source for electricity generation in the European region in 1960s. Between 1960s and 1990s, more than 190 nuclear power reactors were built in the European region, increasing the share of nuclear energy in the energy balance of several European countries. For this reason, nuclear energy was one of the energy sources that during this period contributed significantly to alleviate European energy supply dependency, and it is now an important factor in the reduction of local air pollution and global climate change. Two serious accidents, the first one at Three Mile Island in the USA in 1979 and the second one in 1986 in Chernobyl, Ukraine, the second one with serious consequences for many countries in the European region, stop public support to the use of nuclear energy for electricity generation and led to a scaling back of the nuclear industry in the European region. A third big nuclear accident at Fukushima nuclear power plant in Japan in March 2011 increased further the opposition of the public opinion to the use of nuclear energy for the generation of electricity in several European countries. Some of these countries were forced to shut down the oldest nuclear power reactors in operation, to reduce the participation of nuclear power in their energy mix for the coming decades, to shut down all units, to cancel the construction of new nuclear power reactors or to prohibit the use of this type of energy sources for the generation of electricity in the future.
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Notes
- 1.
It is important to highlight the following: Nuclear energy is not limited to the generation of electricity, but may equally well be used for such important tasks as desalination, production of hydrogen, space heating and process-heat applications in industry as well as for extraction of carbon from CO2 to combine with hydrogen to create synthetic liquid fuels. Many of these alternative applications of nuclear energy will combine very well with the generation of electrical energy in that the reactors could be operated continuously at full power, allocating the required amount of heat to satisfy the electrical load demand and the rest for producing fresh water, hydrogen or steam for industrial processes.
- 2.
When addressing nuclear safety, it is important to make a clear distinction between public safety and economic damage. There is no doubt that the economic damage associated with nuclear accidents can be substantial, as was demonstrated in the three major accidents registered until today. This potential for severe economic damage should be (and is) a strong incentive on the part of the owner/operator of the nuclear power plant to observe extreme caution, observing strictly all safety-related rules and regulations and maintaining a strict safety culture (even without being continuously monitored by the relevant regulatory organization) (Brooks et al. 2014).
- 3.
As numerous scientific comparisons have shown, nuclear fission is among the energy sources that are least polluting and have the lowest overall environmental impact (Conca and Wright 2010). Operating nuclear power plants do not produce air pollution nor do they emit CO2. Annually, the 435 operating nuclear power plants prevent the emission of more than 2 billion tons of CO2. In contrast, coal-fired power plants emit worldwide about 30 billion tons of CO2 per year and cause health effects and premature death through air pollution and dispersion of pollutants, including mercury (harmful to the nervous system, particularly for infants) and other poisonous materials (Kharecha and Hansen 2013). It is important to highlight that nuclear power plants emit less radioactive material than do coal-fired power plants (uranium and other radioactive isotopes are found naturally in coal ash and soot) (Gabbard 1993). The most severe environmental impact associated with nuclear energy is due to the mining of uranium. However, the need for uranium mining will be drastically reduced after fast reactors have become commercially available, as may be expected within the coming decades (Brooks et al. 2014).
- 4.
The Russian operator is to arrange financing and supply of the Fennovoima nuclear power reactor and fuel for the project, which has caused tensions, due to the ongoing rift between Russia and Europe. A total of 115 Deputies voted for the plant to go-ahead with 74 opposed. Referring to the decision to go against Europe’s present position with Russia at the moment, center-right Economy Minister Jan Vapaavuori told Reuters, “It is clear that this is not the best time for this decision from the international politics point of view. But we must make decisions when the issues come to our table.” He added the project would not violate EU sanctions against Russia. The project originally won backing in 2010, but several investors dropped out and changes in the planned reactor's size and supplier prompted the latest approval process. Finns are hoping the addition of the plant will boost power output and an economy set to contract for a third consecutive year.
- 5.
In another scenario this reduction could be even higher from 29 to 20 %.
- 6.
- 7.
The following countries are participating in the fusion experiment: EU (including Switzerland and represented by EURATOM), Japan, China, India, the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, and the USA.
- 8.
- 9.
Considerable research and development efforts have already been conducted on material degradation of reactor pressure vessels, primary piping, core internals, secondary systems, welds, concrete structures, cable insulation, buried piping, and other components. During the operational lifetime of a nuclear power reactor, many of its components (heavy equipment, pipes, valves, cables, electronics, etc.) are replaced. However, there are some irreplaceable parts that constitute the critical life-limiting components, namely the reactor pressure vessel and the containment building. It appears that the impact of irradiation on the reactor pressure vessel is strongly dependent on the chemical composition of the vessel material. The reactor pressure vessels and welding material of older reactors (typically fabricated before 1972) sometimes had relatively high quantities of copper and phosphor that strongly affect the fracture toughness of the vessels. However, newer reactor pressure vessels are made from steel that is much more resistant to irradiation damage than vessels of the first generations. According to the research and development results, most of the vessels have sufficient safety margin below the pressurized thermal shock screening criterion. However, even if the material properties are favorable to long-term operation, complete inspections of the reactor pressure vessel are needed to ensure the global structural integrity of the vessel. The primary containment is the key safety-related concrete structure in nuclear power plants. It is the third (and final) barrier to radioactive release in case of a severe accident (the first is the fuel cladding; the second is the reactor pressure vessel; and the primary circuit). With respect to long-term operation, the containment structure and containment liner are subject to ageing management review to identify age-related degradations. In many countries, the leak tightness of containments is experimentally verified (by pressurizing) during PSRs (every 10 years at minimum) (OECD 2012).
- 10.
The French parliament already approved the transition of energy in France and the reduction of the participation of nuclear energy in the energy mix of the country. The goal is to reduce the participation of nuclear energy in the energy mix of the country from the 73.28 % reached in 2013 to 50 % in 2025.
- 11.
The inclusion of significant nuclear power projects by the UK in an ambitious EU investment plan has drawn the ire of the Austrian government. New EU Commission President Jean Claude Juncker’s 2015 Work Program is the latest document involving UK nuclear strategy to bring criticism from Vienna, who had previously considered launching legal action to stop a subsidy scheme aimed at supporting the sector in Britain. The Austrian leader Werner Faymann protested the UK nuclear power sector’s inclusion within its list of infrastructure eligible for funding under the proposed €315 billion plan. The UK has listed several nuclear-related projects within the Juncker plan, a list of 2,000 projects drawn from across all member states, which will be considered for funding.
“We see the need for Austria to point out that our contributions will not feed the demands of the nuclear energy industry,” Austrian Environment Minister Andrä Rupprechter told journalists in Brussels on Wednesday according to a report by the Austrian Press Agency. Rupprechter acknowledged that Austria was not “in a majority” position on nuclear power, but signaled that Germany, Luxemburg and Sweden were also skeptical on the issue. "We have nothing against improving the safety of existing nuclear power plants,” Rupprechter said, adding: “However demands for new builds or completion of construction projects will meet with resistance.”
The Commissioner for Regional Policy, Austrian Johannes Hahn, spoke out against the Hinkley Point deal, when the commission itself had approved it to go-ahead in October 2014. Austria, itself fell afoul of both the EC and the European Court of Justice this week, when its Green Electricity Act was found to be in breach of European law, as it was deemed that the legislation would unfairly protect energy-intensive industries from their obligations in reducing emissions, while smaller operators would still have had to pay. The Austrian government will be particularly aggrieved at the ruling as neighboring Germany earlier this year won EU and court backing for its green energy scheme to the relief of big business.
- 12.
The construction of an 8th nuclear power reactor with a power capacity of 1,400 MWe was indefinitely postponed by the government in 1988.
- 13.
- 14.
It is important to highlight that Belgian companies supplied about 80 % of the systems and equipment for the country’s nuclear power program.
- 15.
France has only one nuclear power reactor of the fast breeder reactor (FBR) type with a capacity of 130 MW.
- 16.
France’s nuclear power program has cost some FF 400 billion in 1993 currency, excluding interest during construction (WANO 2007).
- 17.
Most of the components are refurbished after 30 years of operation and will be spread over a 3- to 5-year period around the thirtieth anniversary of the plant: (a) Steam generators: globally scheduled to be completed before the end of 2025 for 1,300 MWe plants. Steam generators of 20 reactor units of the 900 MWe fleet have been replaced between 1990 and 2010; (b) Turbines: replacement of the rotors before 2020 for CP1 units; (c) Generators: first rewinding of the stators before 2020, second rewinding to be planned later; (d) Main power transformers: before the end of 2025; (e) Other components: around the thirtieth anniversary of the unit (depending on the results of the aging analysis).
- 18.
Use of other designs such as WESTINGHOUSE’s AP 1000 of GE’s ASBWR is a possibility that has been under consideration.
- 19.
At present a new energy policy of Slovakia is under preparation.
- 20.
Six vendors submitted information packages in December 2010. These vendors were: WESTINGHOUSE AP1000, ATMEA 1100, MITSUBISHI APWR 1700, ATOMSTROYEXPORT MIR 1200, KHNP APR 1400, and AREVA EPR 1600.
- 21.
It is important to note that the first PHWR nuclear power reactor with a net capacity of 10 MWe, Agesta, was initiated its construction in December 1957, was connected to the grid in May 1964, and was shutdown in June 1974.
- 22.
Total electricity production in 2011 amounted to 195 TWh, a little bit lower than in 2007, with 6.3 TWh net exports. In 2011, 90 TWh (46 %) was from nuclear, 75 TWh from coal, 18.5 TWh from gas, and 11 TWh from hydro. Electricity consumption was 140 TWh. In 2009, total capacity was over 52 GWe, and nuclear power plant comprised 26.6 % of this, hydro 9.3 %. In 2013, the generation of electricity using nuclear energy reached 43.58 %, a reduction of 2.42 % respect to 2011.
- 23.
The IAEA in its 1986 analysis had cited the operators’ actions as the principal cause of the accident.
- 24.
According to WNAO report (2012) and other sources, the accident destroyed Unit 4 of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, killing 31 operators and firemen within three months and several further deaths later (the initial explosion resulted in the death of two workers, one of them was killed immediately and a second died in hospital soon after as a result of injuries received. Twenty-eight of the firemen and emergency clean-up workers died in the first three months after the explosion from acute radiation sickness and one of cardiac arrest). Acute radiation syndrome (ARS) was originally diagnosed in 237 people on-site and involved with the clean-up and it was later confirmed in 134 cases. Of these, 28 people died as a result of ARS. Nineteen more subsequently died between 1987 and 2004, but their deaths cannot necessarily be attributed to radiation exposure.
- 25.
According to some experts’ calculations, the resulting steam explosion and fires released at least 5 % of the radioactive reactor core into the atmosphere and downwind.
- 26.
It is important to highlight that in almost all types of nuclear power reactors, the multiplication factor decrease when temperature increases. This also holds for the RBMK reactors, with one exception: When running the reactor at a low power level, increasing boiling of water in the reactor core, which means less water around the reactor core, (steam is virtually transparent to neutrons, so it call “void,” hence “void coefficient”) leads to increasing power. It is important to be aware that although light water (as opposed to heavy water) is often used as moderator, it also works as a poison, absorbing neutrons.
- 27.
According to different public sources, the accident at Chernobyl nuclear power plant was approximately 400 times more potent than the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima during World War II. However, the atomic bomb testing conducted by several countries around the world during the 1960s and 1970s sent between 100 and 1,000 times more radioactive material to the environment than the Chernobyl nuclear accident.
- 28.
For more information about these polls see Saprykin (2005).
- 29.
One of the possible reasons for a high opposition to the construction of new nuclear power reactors in the country in the future could be a lack of information of the Ukrainian’s population about the government’s plan to build new nuclear power reactors. The poll reflects that 91.1 % of the population does not know were these new nuclear power reactors will be located. In other words, the Ukrainian citizens are insufficiently informed about the government’s plans to develop the national nuclear power industry.
- 30.
The construction of this nuclear power reactors finished in September 1996.
- 31.
The 6,000 MW Zaporizhye nuclear power plant, located in the Southeastern part of Ukraine, is the biggest nuclear power plant in Europe and the fifth biggest in the world. It is owned and operated by Ukraine’s national nuclear energy generating company ENERGOATOM and is one of the four operational nuclear power plants in the country. It produces around half of the country’s nuclear power, which accounts for more than 22 % of the total electricity produced in the country. The nuclear power plant consists of six pressurized water reactor (PWR) units, each with a gross electrical capacity of 1,000 MW, which were commissioned between 1984 and 1995. Each generating block of the plant consists of a VVER-1000/V-320 reactor, K-1000-60/1500-2 steam turbine, and a TWW-1000-4 generator. The Soviet-designed VVER-1000s are pressurized water reactors designed to operate for 30 years. Unit 3 was shutdown on November 28, 2014, and put under repair until December 5, 2014, following a short circuit in the plant's transformer yard. On December 3, 2014, ENERGOATOM confirmed that it was an electrical fault confined only to the power output section, without affecting the reactor, and that the radiation levels around the plant had remained unchanged. Units 1 and 2 are undergoing a lifetime extension, involving the modernization of equipment and installation of tension sensors and other advanced safety systems, following the March 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.
Following the breakup of the USSR, spent fuel could no longer be transported to Russia and the shortage of free space in the cooling pools demanded a spent fuel dry storage facility (SFDSF) at the site. Zaporizhye is the first Ukrainian nuclear power plant with VVER-type reactors to include a SFDSF.
The spent nuclear fuel from the reactors is stored in cooling pools for four to five years until their residual energy and radioactivity decrease. It is then transferred to the SFDSF. The storage system can accommodate more than 9,000 spent fuel assemblies in 380 ventilated storage casks. The facility began operations in August 2004 and 80 casks have already been installed on the site.
The second largest nuclear power plant operating in Europe is Gravelines, near Dunkerque in France, with six PWR nuclear power reactors with a total net capacity of 5,460 MWe.
- 32.
In October 2012, CEZ said that the AREVA bid was disqualified because it did not meet all the statutory requirements under the Czech Republic’s Public Procurement Act (Act No 137/2006) and that the company had not fulfilled some other crucial criteria defined in the tender. AREVA contested the decision, but its appeal was rejected by the Anti-Monopoly Office.
- 33.
It is important to highlight the following: The combination of Eastern and Western technologies were successfully completed and verified by the commissioning process. The IAEA mission has so far confirmed that most of the safety issues have been resolved and works on the few remaining issues are in an advanced stage and are not precluding safe operation of the Temelin nuclear power plant.
- 34.
Twenty reactor vessels were made by Skoda for countries in the Eastern European region in the past decades.
- 35.
According with TVO’s officials, EIA presented a proposal to construct a new nuclear power reactor in Olkiluoto site to the government in February 2008. The new unit could be a 1,000–1,800 MWe, PWR, or a BWR unit. Fortum’s plans for the construction of a 1,000–1,800 MWe unit at Loviisa site were submitted in June 2007. This unit may be a BWR, in which case the technology choice is between GE-HITACHI’s ESBWR and TOSHIBA’s Advanced BWR based on ABB’s design already operating at Olkiluoto. Finally, it is important to highlight that the parliament of Finland has backed a plan to allow Russia-state-owned ROSATOM to build a US$7.4 billion, 1,200 MW nuclear power plant in the Hanhikivi nuclear power reactor.
- 36.
As a result of the losses of the entry into operation of Unit 3 in the Olkiluoto nuclear power plant, and low wholesale electricity market prices, Teollisuuden Voima (TVO), the Finnish nuclear power company, plans to restructure its operations. TVO, which operates the Olkiluoto nuclear power plant, said yesterday that it aims to achieve cost savings of €15 million by “centralizing corporate support functions,” among other changes. This equates to a reduction of 100 “man working years” at the most, it added. TVO blamed the weakened competitiveness of the electricity produced by the two existing units as well as cost overruns related to the long-delayed third unit. According to World Nuclear News, Jarmo Tanhua, TVO President and CEO, said the competitiveness of the electricity produced by the Olkiluoto plant had declined in recent years and that the outlook was uncertain. The Nordic power market price for wholesale electricity production has dropped, he said, and “there are no signs of improvement in the foreseeable future.” Costs related to nuclear power production have increased and the delay to the start-up of Olkiluoto 3 “has caused remarkable additional costs,” he said. “In order to improve the competitiveness of Olkiluoto electricity production we need to start these regrettable [cost cutting] measures.” TVO said it had informed its staff of “efficiency-related structural changes which will have implications for personnel.” Finland’s state-run news service Yle said yesterday that TVO would start redundancy talks next week aimed at cutting up to 110 jobs. Staff directly responsible for the safety of the Olkiluoto plant’s operations, including personnel representing safety authority STUK, will not be affected by the redundancy plans.
- 37.
France is also constructing a similar nuclear power reactor in the Framanvilles nuclear power plant (Unit 3) located in Normandy.
- 38.
In Fig. 8.64, two nuclear power reactors were closed: Vandellos 1 and José Cabrera.
- 39.
Nuclear power debate heats up by José Antonio Gurriarán, March 26, 2008, IPS.
- 40.
According to previous decision adopted by the UK’s government, it was expected that all but one of the current number of nuclear power reactors will be retired by 2023. This decision has been changed and an expansion of the UK nuclear power program has been recently adopted.
- 41.
Pricing and taxation constitute the core of the new Russia’s energy policy.
- 42.
See Vovk (2006).
- 43.
Energy Strategy of Russia (2009) for the Period to the Year of 2020 and Strategy for Development of the Russian Nuclear Power Sector in the First Half of twenty-first century.
- 44.
The ship will uses modified OKBM KLT-40S nuclear power reactor derived from naval propulsion reactors used on the country’s existing fleet of icebreakers in service for the last 50 years.
- 45.
The USA produced a floating nuclear power plant in late 1960s early 1970s, with the purpose of supplying 10 MW and desalinated water to the Panama Canal Zone.
- 46.
SNN was established in 1998.
- 47.
The government is thinking not to conclude the construction of Unit 5, but to start the construction of a second nuclear power plant in another site.
- 48.
It is important to note that the Canadian nuclear regulator has announced it will no longer give construction permits for the Generation II CANDU technology in its own country, because it does not meet modern safety standards.
- 49.
N.V. Samenwerkende Slektricititeits Produktiebedrijven is the owner of the Dodewaard nuclear power plant.
- 50.
State-owned POLSKA GRUPA ENERGETYCZNA SA (PGE) is Poland’s largest power group by generating capacity.
- 51.
According to January 2008 estimate.
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Morales Pedraza, J. (2015). The Current Situation and Perspectives on the Use of Nuclear Energy for Electricity Generation. In: Electrical Energy Generation in Europe. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16083-2_8
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