Abstract
This chapter presents atomic frequency standards with high-stability frequency of oscillations. Also discussed is the Allan variance used for measuring the frequency fluctuations in such standards. We present the design of the 9.2 GHz cesium standard, which is presently the most important atomic standard. We discuss the directions of development and the metrological parameters of cesium atomic standards: more complicated and expensive, but providing better accuracy cesium fountain standards, and much cheaper miniature cesium standards with the size of a matchbox. Also discussed are other frequency standards: hydrogen masers, rubidium standards and the currently implemented standards with a visible wavelength. Optical frequency standards are potentially 105 times more stable than the cesium standard, though at present their actual stability is only 10 times higher. Together with the optical frequency standards we discuss the optical comb, used for mapping frequencies of the order of 1014 Hz to MHz frequencies. Also discussed are the major time scales, the International Atomic Time (TAI) and the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), as well as the role of satellite navigation systems (GPS, GLONASS, BeiDou) in the dissemination of the standard time signal.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
D.W. Allan, Statistics of atomic frequency standards. Proc. IEEE 54, 221–230 (1966)
A. Bauch, Caesium atomic clocks: function, performance and applications. Meas. Sci. Technol. 14, 1159–1173 (2003)
S. Bregni, Synchronization of Digital Telecommunications Networks (Wiley, Chichester, 2002)
S. Chu, The Manipulation of Neutral Particles. Nobel Lectures (World Scientific, Singapore, 1996–2000), pp. 122–158
R.H. Feynman, R.B. Leighton, M. Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics, vol. 3 (Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1964)
P. Gill et al., Trapped ion optical frequency standards. Meas. Sci. Technol. 14, 1174–1186 (2003)
T.W. Hänsch, Passion for Precision. Nobel Lectures (World Scientific, Singapore, 2001–2005), pp. 485–509
Information on UTC—TAI, Bulletin C 48, International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service, July 2014, Observatoire de Paris
P. Kartaschoff, Frequency and Time (Elsevier, New York, 1978)
M. Kumagai, H. Ito, M. Kajita, M. Hosokawa, Evaluation of caesium atomic fountain NICT-CsF1. Metrologia 45, 139–148 (2008)
A. Piekara, J. Stankowski, S. Smolińska, J. Galica, Ammonia maser of poznan research center (in Polish). Postępy Fizyki 15, 565 (1964)
K. Szymaniec, W. Chałupczak, P.B. Whibberley, S.N. Lea, D. Henderson, Evaluation of the primary frequency standard NPL-CsF1. Metrologia 42, 49–57 (2005)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Nawrocki, W. (2015). Atomic Clocks and Time Scales. In: Introduction to Quantum Metrology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-15669-9_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-15669-9_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-15668-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-15669-9
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)