Abstract
Among the most important factors influencing beer quality is the presence of well-adjusted amounts of higher alcohols and esters; as well as the successful reduction of undesirable by-products such as diacetyl. While higher alcohols and esters contribute rather positively to the beer aroma, diacetyl is mostly unwelcome for beer types with lighter taste. Thus, the complex metabolic pathways in yeast responsible for the synthesis of both pleasant and unpleasant by-products of fermentation were given special attention in this last chapter.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Alvarez P, Malcorps P, Almeida AS, Ferreira A, Meyer AM, Dufour JP (1994) Analysis of free fatty-acids, fusel alcohols, and esters in beer—an alternative to Cs2 extraction. J Am Soc Brew Chem 52:127–134
Anderson RG, Kirsop BH (1974) The control of volatile ester synthesis during the fermentation of wort of high specific gravity. J Inst Brew 80:48–55
Anderson RG, Kirsop BH (1975a) Oxygen as a regulator of ester accumulation during the fermentation of worts of high specific gravity. J Inst Brew 81:111–115
Anderson RG, Kirsop BH (1975b) Quantitative aspects of the control by oxygenation of acetate ester formation of worts of high specific gravity. J Inst Brew 81:269–301
Avalos JL, Fink GR, Stephanopoulos G (2013) Compartmentalization of metabolic pathways in yeast mitochondria improves the production of branched-chain alcohols. Nat Biotechnol 31(4):335–341. doi:10.1038/nbt.2509
Äyräptää T (1971) Biosynthetic formation of higher alcohols by yeast. Dependence on the nitrogen nutrient level of the medium. J Inst Brew 77:266–276
Baker CA, Morton S (1977) Oxygen levels in air-saturated worts. J Inst Brew 83:348–349
Bamforth C, Kanauchi M (2004) Enzymology of vicinal diketone reduction in brewer’s yeast. J Inst Brew 110(2):83–93
Berner TS, Arneborg N (2012) The role of lager beer yeast in oxidative stability of model beer. Lett Appl Microbiol 54(3):225–232. doi:10.1111/j.1472-765X.2011.03195.x
Blasco L, Vinas M, Villa TG (2011) Proteins influencing foam formation in wine and beer: the role of yeast. Int Microbiol 14(2):61–71
Boer VM, Tai SL, Vuralhan Z, Arifin Y, Walsh MC, Piper MD, de Winde JH, Pronk JT, Daran JM (2007) Transcriptional responses of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to preferred and nonpreferred nitrogen sources in glucose-limited chemostat cultures. FEMS Yeast Res 7(4):604–620. doi:10.1111/j.1567-1364.2007.00220.x
Bolat I, Romagnoli G, Zhu F, Pronk JT, Daran JM (2013) Functional analysis and transcriptional regulation of two orthologs of ARO10, encoding broad-substrate-specificity 2-oxo-acid decarboxylases, in the brewing yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus CBS1483. FEMS Yeast Res 13(6):505–517. doi:10.1111/1567-1364.12051
Boulton C, Box W (2008) 18 formation and disappearance of diacetyl during lager fermentation. Brewing Yeast Fermentation Performance, p 183
Branyik T, Silva DP, Baszczynski M, Lehnert R, Silva J (2012) A review of methods of low alcohol and alcohol-free beer production. J Food Eng 108:493–506
Bravi E, Perretti G, Buzzini P, Della Sera R, Fantozzi P (2009) Technological steps and yeast biomass as factors affecting the lipid content of beer during the brewing process. J Agric Food Chem 57(14):6279–6284. doi:10.1021/jf9007423
Brognaux A, Han S, Sorensen SJ, Lebeau F, Thonart P, Delvigne F (2013) A low-cost, multiplexable, automated flow cytometry procedure for the characterization of microbial stress dynamics in bioreactors. Microb Cell Fact 12:100. doi:10.1186/1475-2859-12-100
Buhligen F, Rudinger P, Fetzer I, Stahl F, Scheper T, Harms H, Muller S (2013) Sustainability of industrial yeast serial repitching practice studied by gene expression and correlation analysis. J Biotechnol. doi:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2013.09.008
Calderbank J, Hammond JRM (1994) Influence of higher alcohol availability on ester formation by yeast. J Am Soc Brew Chem 52(2):84–90
Chen E-H (1978) Relative contribution of Ehrlich and biosynthetic pathways to the formation of fusel alcohols. J Am Soc Brew Chem 36:39–43
Dasari S, Kolling R (2011) Cytosolic localization of acetohydroxyacid synthase Ilv2 and its impact on diacetyl formation during beer fermentation. Appl Environ Microbiol 77(3):727–731. doi:10.1128/AEM.01579-10
de Lorenzo V (2014) From the selfish gene to selfish metabolism: revisiting the central dogma. BioEssays 36(3):226–235
Dekoninck T, Verbelen PJ, Delvaux F, Van Mulders SE, Delvaux F (2012) The importance of wort composition for yeast metabolism during accelerated brewery fermentations. J Am Soc Brew Chem 70(3):195–204
Delvigne F, Goffin P (2014) Microbial heterogeneity affects bioprocess robustness: dynamic single-cell analysis contributes to understanding of microbial populations. Biotechnol J 9(1):61–72. doi:10.1002/biot.201300119
Dickinson JR, Norte V (1993) A study of branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase and isolation of mutations affecting the catabolism of branched-chain amino acids in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FEBS Lett 326(1–3):29–32
Dickinson JR, Lanterman MM, Danner DJ, Pearson BM, Sanz P, Harrison SJ, Hewlins MJ (1997) A 13C nuclear magnetic resonance investigation of the metabolism of leucine to isoamyl alcohol in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 272(43):26871–26878
Dickinson JR, Harrison SJ, Hewlins MJ (1998) An investigation of the metabolism of valine to isobutyl alcohol in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 273(40):25751–25756
Dickinson JR, Harrison SJ, Dickinson JA, Hewlins MJ (2000) An investigation of the metabolism of isoleucine to active Amyl alcohol in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 275(15):10937–10942
Dickinson JR, Salgado LE, Hewlins MJ (2003) The catabolism of amino acids to long chain and complex alcohols in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 278(10):8028–8034. doi:10.1074/jbc.M211914200
Didion T, Grauslund M, Kielland-Brandt MC, Andersen HA (1996) Amino acids induce expression of BAP2, a branched-chain amino acid permease gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Bacteriol 178(7):2025–2029
Dillemans M, Goossens E, Goffin O, Masschelein C (1987) The amplification effects of the ILV5 gene on the production of vicinal diketones in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Am Soc Brew Chem 45(3):81–84
Dufour JP (1994) Higher alcohols, acids and ester secretion during yeast growth. In: 6th Jean De Clerck Chair, Leuven, Belgium. Academic Press, Waltham, pp 1–40
Duong CT, Strack L, Futschik M, Katou Y, Nakao Y, Fujimura T, Shirahige K, Kodama Y, Nevoigt E (2011) Identification of Sc-type ILV6 as a target to reduce diacetyl formation in lager brewers’ yeast. Metab Eng 13(6):638–647. doi:10.1016/j.ymben.2011.07.005
Eden A, Simchen G, Benvenisty N (1996) Two yeast homologs of ECA39, a target for c-Myc regulation, code for cytosolic and mitochondrial branched-chain amino acid aminotransferases. J Biol Chem 271(34):20242–20245
Eden A, Van Nedervelde L, Drukker M, Benvenisty N, Debourg A (2001) Involvement of branched-chain amino acid aminotransferases in the production of fusel alcohols during fermentation in yeast. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 55(3):296–300
Ehrlich F (1907) Über die Bedingungen der Fuselölbildung und über ihren Zusammenhang mit dem Eiweissaufbau der Hefe. Ber Dtsch Chem Ges 40:1027–1047
Ekberg J, Rautio J, Mattinen L, Vidgren V, Londesborough J, Gibson BR (2013) Adaptive evolution of the lager brewing yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus for improved growth under hyperosmotic conditions and its influence on fermentation performance. FEMS Yeast Res 13(3):335–349. doi:10.1111/1567-1364.12038
Engan S (1970) Wort composition and beer flavour I: the influence of some amino acids on the formation of higher aliphatic alcohols and esters. J Inst Brew 76:254–261
Engan S (1974) Esters in beer. J Inst Brew Dig 49:40–48
Engan S (1981) Beer composition: volatile substances. In: Pollock JRA (ed) Brewing science, vol 2. Academic Press, London, pp 93–165
Engan S, Aubert O (1977) Relations between fermentation temperature and the formation of some flavour components. In: 16th European brewery convention congress, Netherlands, Amsterdam, pp 591–607
Falco SC, Dumas KS, Livak KJ (1985) Nucleotide sequence of the yeast ILV2 gene which encodes acetolactate synthase. Nucleic Acids Res 13(11):4011–4027
Fujii T, Nagasawa N, Iwamatsu A, Bogaki T, Tamai Y, Hamachi M (1994) Molecular cloning, sequence analysis, and expression of the yeast alcohol acetyltransferase gene. Appl Environ Microbiol 60(8):2786–2792
Fujii T, Yoshimoto H, Nagasawa N, Bogaki T, Tamai Y, Hamachi M (1996) Nucleotide sequences of alcohol acetyltransferase genes from lager brewing yeast, Saccharomyces carlsbergensis. Yeast 12(6):593–598. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0061(199605)12:6<593:AID-YEA593>3.0.CO;2-B
Fujii T, Kobayashi O, Yoshimoto H, Furukawa S, Tamai Y (1997) Effect of aeration and unsaturated fatty acids on expression of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae alcohol acetyltransferase gene. Appl Environ Microbiol 63(3):910–915
Fujiwara D, Yoshimoto H, Sone H, Harashima S, Tamai Y (1998) Transcriptional co-regulation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae alcohol acetyltransferase gene, ATF1 and delta-9 fatty acid desaturase gene, OLE1 by unsaturated fatty acids. Yeast 14(8):711–721. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0061(19980615)14:8<711:AID-YEA263>3.0.CO;2-8
Fujiwara D, Kobayashi O, Yoshimoto H, Harashima S, Tamai Y (1999) Molecular mechanism of the multiple regulation of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae ATF1 gene encoding alcohol acetyltransferase. Yeast 15:1183–1197
Fukuda K, Kuwahata O, Kiyokawa Y, Yanagiuchi T, Wakai Y, Kitamoto K, Inoue Y, Kimura A (1996) Molecular cloning and nucleotide sequence of the isoamyl acetate-hydrolyzing esterase gene (EST2) from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Ferment Bioeng 82(1):8–15
Fukuda K, Yamamoto N, Kiyokawa Y, Yanagiuchi T, Wakai Y, Kitamoto K, Inoue Y, Kimura A (1998a) Balance of activities of alcohol acetyltransferase and esterase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is important for production of isoamyl acetate. Appl Environ Microbiol 64:4076–4078
Fukuda K, Yamamoto N, Kiyokawa Y, Yanagiuchi T, Wakai Y, Kitamoto K, Inoue Y, Kimura A (1998b) Brewing properties of sake yeast whose EST2 gene encoding isoamyl acetate-hydrolyzing esterase was disrupted. J Ferment Bioeng 85(1):101–106
García AI, García LA, Díaz M (1994) Modelling of diacetyl production during beer fermentation. J Inst Brew 100(3):179–183
Gibson BR, Lawrence SJ, Boulton CA, Box WG, Graham NS, Linforth RS, Smart KA (2008) The oxidative stress response of a lager brewing yeast strain during industrial propagation and fermentation. FEMS Yeast Res 8(4):574–585. doi:10.1111/j.1567-1364.2008.00371.x
Gibson BR, Boulton CA, Box WG, Graham NS, Lawrence SJ, Linforth RS, Smart KA (2009) Amino acid uptake and yeast gene transcription during industrial brewery fermentation. J Am Soc Brew Chem 67(3):157–165
Gibson B, Krogerus K, Ekberg J, Monroux A, Mattinen L, Rautio J, Vidgren V (2014) Variation in α‐acetolactate production within the hybrid lager yeast group Saccharomyces pastorianus and affirmation of the central role of the ILV6 gene. Yeast
Gjermansen C, Nilsson-Tillgren T, Petersen JG, Kielland-Brandt MC, Sigsgaard P, Holmberg S (1988) Towards diacetyl-less brewers’ yeast. Influence of ilv2 and ilv5 mutations. J Basic Microbiol 28(3):175–183
He Y, Dong J, Yin H, Chen P, Lin H, Chen L (2014) Monitoring of the production of flavour compounds by analysis of the gene transcription involved in higher alcohol and ester formation by the brewer’s yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus using a multiplex RT-qPCR assay. J Inst Brew 120(2):119–126
Hiralal L, Olaniran AO, Pillay B (2013) Aroma-active ester profile of ale beer produced under different fermentation and nutritional conditions. J Biosci Bioeng. doi:10.1016/j.jbiosc.2013.06.002
Hiralal L, Olaniran AO, Pillay B (2014) Aroma-active ester profile of ale beer produced under different fermentation and nutritional conditions. J Biosci Bioeng 117(1):57–64
Hsu YP, Kohlhaw GB (1980) Leucine biosynthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Purification and characterization of beta-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase. J Biol Chem 255(15):7255–7260
Hull G (2008) Olive oil addition to yeast as an alternative to wort aeration. Tech Q Master Brew Assoc Am 45:17–23
Iraqui I, Vissers S, Andre B, Urrestarazu A (1999) Transcriptional induction by aromatic amino acids in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol 19(5):3360–3371
Jenkins CL, Kennedy AI, Hodgson JA, Thurston Pa, Smart KA (2003) Impact of serial repitching on lager brewing yeast quality. J Am Soc Brew Chem 61:1–9
Kispal G, Steiner H, Court DA, Rolinski B, Lill R (1996) Mitochondrial and cytosolic branched-chain amino acid transaminases from yeast, homologs of the myc oncogene-regulated Eca39 protein. J Biol Chem 271(40):24458–24464
Knatchbull FB, Slaughter JC (1987) The effect of low CO2 pressure on the absorption of amino acids and production of flavour-active volatiles by yeast. J Inst Brew 93:420–424
Kodama Y, Omura F, Ashikari T (2001) Isolation and characterization of a gene specific to lager brewing yeast that encodes a branched-chain amino acid permease. Appl Environ Microbiol 67(8):3455–3462. doi:10.1128/AEM.67.8.3455-3462.2001
Kohlhaw GB (2003) Leucine biosynthesis in fungi: entering metabolism through the back door. Microbiology and molecular biology reviews : MMBR 67(1):1–15 (table of contents)
Krogerus K, Gibson BR (2013) Diacetyl and its control during brewery fermentation. J Inst Brew 119(3):86–97
Kusunoki K, Ogata T (2012) Construction of self-cloning bottom-fermenting yeast with low vicinal diketone production by the homo-integration of ILV5. Yeast 29(10):435–442
Landaud S, Latrille E, Corrieu G (2001) Top pressure and temperature control the fusel alcohol/ester ratio through yeast growth in beer fermentation. J Inst Brew 107(2):107–117
Lee K, Hahn JS (2013) Interplay of Aro80 and GATA activators in regulation of genes for catabolism of aromatic amino acids in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Microbiol 88(6):1120–1134. doi:10.1111/mmi.12246
Lee K, Sung C, Kim BG, Hahn JS (2013) Activation of Aro80 transcription factor by heat-induced aromatic amino acid influx in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 438(1):43–47. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.07.019
Lei H, Zhao H, Yu Z, Zhao M (2012) Effects of wort gravity and nitrogen level on fermentation performance of brewer’s yeast and the formation of flavor volatiles. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 166(6):1562–1574. doi:10.1007/s12010-012-9560-8
Lei H, Li H, Mo F, Zheng L, Zhao H, Zhao M (2013a) Effects of Lys and His supplementations on the regulation of nitrogen metabolism in lager yeast. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 97(20):8913–8921. doi:10.1007/s00253-013-5137-x
Lei H, Zhao H, Zhao M (2013b) Proteases supplementation to high gravity worts enhances fermentation performance of brewer’s yeast. Biochem Eng J 77:1–6
Lei H, Zheng L, Wang C, Zhao H, Zhao M (2013c) Effects of worts treated with proteases on the assimilation of free amino acids and fermentation performance of lager yeast. Int J Food Microbiol 161(2):76–83. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2012.11.024
Libkind D, Hittinger CT, Valerio E, Goncalves C, Dover J, Johnston M, Goncalves P, Sampaio JP (2011) Microbe domestication and the identification of the wild genetic stock of lager-brewing yeast. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108(35):14539–14544. doi:10.1073/pnas.1105430108
Lilly M, Bauer FF, Lambrechts MG, Swiegers JH, Cozzolino D, Pretorius IS (2006) The effect of increased yeast alcohol acetyltransferase and esterase activity on the flavour profiles of wine and distillates. Yeast 23:641–659
Liu Z-R, Zhang G-Y, Li J, Yang H, Ju G-Q (2007) Stable expression of glucoamylase gene in industrial strain of Saccharomyces pastorianus with less diacetyl produced. Ann Microbiol 57(2):233–237
Liu Y, Dong J, Chen Y, Wu M, Peng X, Xiao D (2014) Effect of LEU2 gene deletion on higher alcohols production of high adjunct beer. In: Proceedings of the 2012 international conference on applied biotechnology (ICAB 2012). Springer, Berlin, pp 115–123
Lodolo EJ, Kock JL, Axcell BC, Brooks M (2008) The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae—the main character in beer brewing. FEMS Yeast Res 8(7):1018–1036. doi:10.1111/j.1567-1364.2008.00433.x
Ma J, Lu Q, Yuan Y, Ge H, Li K, Zhao W, Gao Y, Niu L, Teng M (2011) Crystal structure of isoamyl acetate-hydrolyzing esterase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae reveals a novel active site architecture and the basis of substrate specificity. Proteins 79(2):662–668. doi:10.1002/prot.22865
Magee PT, Robichon-Szulmajster H (1968) The regulation of isoleucine-valine biosynthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 3. Properties and regulation of the activity of acetohydroxyacid synthetase. Eur J Biochem/FEBS 3(4):507–511
Malcorps P, Dufour JP (1992) Short-chain and medium-chain aliphatic-ester synthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. European J Biochem/FEBS 210(3):1015–1022
Malcorps P, Cheval JM, JamilS., Dufour J-P (1991) A new model for the regulation of ester synthesis by alcohol acetyltransferase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Am Soc Brew Chem 49:47–53
Mason AB, Dufour JP (2000) Alcohol acetyltransferases and the significance of ester synthesis in yeast. Yeast 16:1287–1298
Meilgaard MC (1975a) Flavor chemistry of beer: part I: flavor interaction between principal volatiles. MBAA Techn Quart 12(2):107–117
Meilgaard MC (1975b) Flavour chemistry of beer. Part II: Flavor and threshold of 239 aroma volatiles. MBAA Techn Quart 12(2):151–168
Meilgaard MC (1991) The flavor of beer. MBAA Tech Q 28:132–141
Mojzita D, Hohmann S (2006) Pdc2 coordinates expression of the THI regulon in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Genet Genomics MGG 276(2):147–161. doi:10.1007/s00438-006-0130-z
Molina AM, Swiegers JH, Varela C, Pretorius IS, Agosin E (2007) Influence of wine fermentation temperature on the synthesis of yeast-derived volatile aroma compounds. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 77(3):675–687. doi:10.1007/s00253-007-1194-3
Montanari L, Marconi O, Mayer H, Fantozzi P (2009) Production of alcohol-free beer. Beer in health and disease prevention. Elsevier Inc., Burlington
Moonjai N, Verstrepen KJ, Delvaux FR, Derdelinckx G, Verachtert H (2002) The effects if linoleic acid supplementation of cropped yeast on its subsequent fermentation performance and acetate ester synthesis. J Inst Brew 108:227–235
Nagasawa N, Bogaki T, Iwamatsu A, Hamachi M, Kumagai C (1998) Cloning and nucleotide sequence of the alcohol acetyltransferase II gene (ATF2) from Saccharomyces cerevisiae Kyokai No. 7. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 62(10):1852–1857
Neubauer O, Fromherz K (1911) Über den Abbau der Aminosäuren bei der Hefegärung. Hoppe-Seyler’s Z Physiol Chem 70:326–350
Neven H, Delvaux F, Derdelinckx G (1997) Flavor evolution of top fermented beers. MBAA Tech Q 34:115–118
Nordström K (1962) Formation of ethyl acetate in fermentation with brewer’s yeast III. Participation of coenzyme A. J Inst Brew 68:398–407
Nykanen L, Nykanen I (1977) Production of esters by different yeast strains in sugar fermentations. J Inst Brew 83:30–31
Nykanen I, Suomalainen H (1983) Formation of aroma compounds by yeast. In: NaH Suomalainen (ed) Aroma of beer, wine and distilled beverages. Reidel Publishing Company, Netherlands, pp 3–16
Nykiinen L, Nykiinen I, Suomalainen H (1977) Distribution of esters produced during sugar fermentation between the yeast cell and the medium. J Inst Brew 83:32–34
Omura F (2008) Targeting of mitochondrial Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ilv5p to the cytosol and its effect on vicinal diketone formation in brewing. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 78(3):503–513. doi:10.1007/s00253-007-1333-x
Oshita K, Kubota M, Uchida Ma, Ono M (1995) Clarification of the relationship between fusel alcohol formation and amino acid assimilation by brewing yeast using 13C-labeled amino acid. In: 25th European brewery convention congress, Brussels, pp 387–402
Park SH, Kim S, Hahn JS (2014) Metabolic engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for the production of isobutanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 98(21):9139–9147. doi:10.1007/s00253-014-6081-0
Peddie HAB (1990) Ester formation in brewery fermentations. J Inst Brew Dig 96:327–331
Perpete P, Collin S (2000) Influence of beer ethanol content on the wort flavour perception. Food Chem 71:379–385
Perpète P, Santos G, Bodart E, Collin S (2005) Uptake of amino acids during beer production: the concept of a critical time value. J Am Soc Brew Chem 63(1):23–27
Picotti P, Clement-Ziza M, Lam H, Campbell DS, Schmidt A, Deutsch EW, Rost H, Sun Z, Rinner O, Reiter L, Shen Q, Michaelson JJ, Frei A, Alberti S, Kusebauch U, Wollscheid B, Moritz RL, Beyer A, Aebersold R (2013) A complete mass-spectrometric map of the yeast proteome applied to quantitative trait analysis. Nature 494(7436):266–270. doi:10.1038/nature11835
Piddocke MP, Kreisz S, Heldt-Hansen HP, Nielsen KF, Olsson L (2009) Physiological characterization of brewer’s yeast in high-gravity beer fermentations with glucose or maltose syrups as adjuncts. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 84(3):453–464. doi:10.1007/s00253-009-1930-y
Pires EJ, Teixeira JA, Brányik T, Côrte-Real M, Brandão T, Vicente AA (2014) High gravity primary continuous beer fermentation using flocculent yeast biomass. J Inst Brew. doi:10.1002/jib.171
Powell CD, Diacetis AN (2007) Long term serial repitching and the genetic and phenotypic stability of brewer’s yeast. J Inst Brew 113(1):67–74
Procopio S, Krausea D, Hofmannb T, Beckera T (2013) Significant amino acids in aroma compound profiling during yeast fermentation analyzed by PLS regression. LWT—Food Sci Technol 51(2):423–432
Pugh T, Maurer J, Pringle A (1997) The impact of wort nitrogen limitation on yeast fermentation performance and diacetyl. Discussion. Tech Q-Master Brew Assoc Am 34(3):185–189
Qin Y, Park H-D (2012) Overexpressed acetohydroxyacid reductoisomerase (ILV5) gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae reduces diacetyl contents in Korean Campbell Early and Muscat Bailey a grape wines. J Korean Soc Appl Biol Chem 55(6):799–801
Ramos-Jeunehomme C, Laub R, Masschelein CA (1991) Why is ester formation in brewery fermentations yeast strain dependent? In: 23rd European brewery convention congress, Lisbon. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 257–264
Renger RS, Van Hateren SH, and, Luyben KCAM (1992) The formation of esters and higher alcohols during brewery fermentation—the effect of carbon dioxide pressure. J Inst Brew 98:509–513
Rice JF, Chicoye E, Helbert JR (1977) Inhibition of beer volatiles formation by carbon dioxide pressure. J Am Soc Brew Chem 35:35–40
Rodrigues JA, Barros AS, Carvalho B, Brandao T, Gil AM (2011) Probing beer aging chemistry by nuclear magnetic resonance and multivariate analysis. Anal Chim Acta 702(2):178–187. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2011.06.042
Romagnoli G, Luttik MA, Kotter P, Pronk JT, Daran JM (2012) Substrate specificity of thiamine pyrophosphate-dependent 2-oxo-acid decarboxylases in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl Environ Microbiol 78(21):7538–7548. doi:10.1128/AEM.01675-12
Romkes SC, Lewis MJ (1971) Some Factors Which Affect Amino Acid Uptake by Saccharomyces carlsbergensis. Appl Microbiol 21(5):799–805
Rossouw D, Naes T, Bauer FF (2008) Linking gene regulation and the exo-metabolome: a comparative transcriptomics approach to identify genes that impact on the production of volatile aroma compounds in yeast. BMC Genom 9:530. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-9-530
Ryan ED, Kohlhaw GB (1974) Subcellular localization of isoleucine-valine biosynthetic enzymes in yeast. J Bacteriol 120(2):631–637
Saerens SM, Verstrepen KJ, Van Laere SD, Voet AR, Van Dijck P, Delvaux FR, Thevelein JM (2006) The Saccharomyces cerevisiae EHT1 and EEB1 genes encode novel enzymes with medium-chain fatty acid ethyl ester synthesis and hydrolysis capacity. J Biol Chem 281(7):4446–4456. doi:10.1074/jbc.M512028200
Saerens SM, Delvaux F, Verstrepen KJ, Van Dijck P, Thevelein JM, Delvaux FR (2008a) Parameters affecting ethyl ester production by Saccharomyces cerevisiae during fermentation. Appl Environ Microbiol 74(2):454–461. doi:10.1128/AEM.01616-07
Saerens SM, Verbelen PJ, Vanbeneden N, Thevelein JM, Delvaux FR (2008b) Monitoring the influence of high-gravity brewing and fermentation temperature on flavour formation by analysis of gene expression levels in brewing yeast. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 80(6):1039–1051. doi:10.1007/s00253-008-1645-5
Saison D, De Schutter DP, Uyttenhove B, Delvaux F, Delvaux FR (2009) Contribution of staling compounds to the aged flavour of lager beer by studying their flavour thresholds. Food Chem 114:1206–1215
Sato M, Watari J, Sahara Ha, Koshino S (1994) Instability in electrophoretic karyotype of brewing yeasts. J Am Soc Brew Chem 52:148–151
Schoondermark-Stolk SA, Tabernero M, Chapman J, Ter Schure EG, Verrips CT, Verkleij AJ, Boonstra J (2005) Bat2p is essential in Saccharomyces cerevisiae for fusel alcohol production on the non-fermentable carbon source ethanol. FEMS Yeast Res 5(8):757–766. doi:10.1016/j.femsyr.2005.02.005
Sentheshanmuganathan S, Elsden SR (1958) The mechanism of the formation of tyrosol by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biochem J 69(2):210–218
Sentheshanuganathan S (1960) The mechanism of the formation of higher alcohols from amino acids by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biochem J 74:568–576
Shanta Kumara HMC, Fukui N, Kojima K, and, Nakatani K (1995) Regulation mechanism of ester formation by dissolved carbon dioxide during beer fermentation. MBAA Tech Q 32:159–162
Shindo S, Murakani J, Koshino S (1992) Control of acetate ester formation during alcohol fermentation with immobilized yeast. J Ferment Bioeng 73:370–374
Stanbrough M, Magasanik B (1995) Transcriptional and posttranslational regulation of the general amino acid permease of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Bacteriol 177(1):94–102
Stewart G (2007) High gravity brewing—the pros and cons. New Food 1:42–46
Strejc J, Siříšťová L, Karabín M, Silva J, Brányik T (2013) Production of alcohol-free beer with elevated amounts of flavouring compounds using lager yeast mutants. J Inst Brew. doi:10.1002/jib.72
Suomalainen H (1981) Yeast esterases and aroma esters in alcoholic beverages. J Inst Brew 87:296–300
Taylor GT, Tburston PA, and, Kirsop BH (1979) lnfluence of lipids derived from malt spent grains on yeast metabolism and fermentation. J Inst Brew 85:219–227
Thurston PA, Quain DE, and, Tuhh RS (1982) Lipid metabolism and the regulation of volatile synthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Inst Brew 88:90–94
Urrestarazu A, Vissers S, Iraqui I, Grenson M (1998) Phenylalanine- and tyrosine-auxotrophic mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae impaired in transamination. Mol Gen Genet MGG 257(2):230–237
van Heerden JH, Wortel MT, Bruggeman FJ, Heijnen JJ, Bollen YJ, Planqué R, Hulshof J, O’Toole TG, Wahl SA, Teusink B (2014) Lost in transition: start-up of glycolysis yields subpopulations of nongrowing cells. Science 343(6174):1245114
Vanderhaegen B, Neven H, Coghe S, Verstrepen KJ, Derdelinckx G, Verachtert H (2003) Bioflavoring and beer refermentation. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 62(2–3):140–150. doi:10.1007/s00253-003-1340-5
Vanderhaegen B, Neven H, Verachtert H, Derdelinckx G (2006) The chemistry of beer aging—a critical review. Food Chem 95:357–381
Vasconcelles MJ, Jiang Y, McDaid K, Gilooly L, Wretzel S, Porter DL, Martin CE, Goldberg MA (2001) Identification and characterization of a low oxygen response element involved in the hypoxic induction of a family of Saccharomyces cerevisiae genes. Implications for the conservation of oxygen sensing in eukaryotes. J Biol Chem 276(17):14374–14384. doi:10.1074/jbc.M009546200
Vaughan MA, Kurtzman CP (1985) Deoxyribonucleic acid relatedness among species of the genus Saccharomyces sensu stricto. Int J Syst Bacteriol 35:508–511
Verbelen PJ, Mulders S, Saison D, Laere S, Delvaux F, Delvaux FR (2008) Characteristics of high cell density fermentations with different lager yeast strains. J Inst Brew 114(2):127–133
Verbelen PJ, Dekoninck TM, Saerens SM, Van Mulders SE, Thevelein JM, Delvaux FR (2009a) Impact of pitching rate on yeast fermentation performance and beer flavour. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 82(1):155–167. doi:10.1007/s00253-008-1779-5
Verbelen PJ, Saerens SM, Van Mulders SE, Delvaux F, Delvaux FR (2009b) The role of oxygen in yeast metabolism during high cell density brewery fermentations. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 82(6):1143–1156. doi:10.1007/s00253-009-1909-8
Verstrepen KJ, Derdelinckx G, Dufour JP, Winderickx J, Pretorius IS, Thevelein JM, Delvaux FR (2003a) The Saccharomyces cerevisiae alcohol acetyl transferase gene ATF1 is a target of the cAMP/PKA and FGM nutrient-signalling pathways. FEMS Yeast Res 4(3):285–296
Verstrepen KJ, Van Laere SD, Vanderhaegen BM, Derdelinckx G, Dufour JP, Pretorius IS, Winderickx J, Thevelein JM, Delvaux FR (2003b) Expression levels of the yeast alcohol acetyltransferase genes ATF1, Lg-ATF1, and ATF2 control the formation of a broad range of volatile esters. Appl Environ Microbiol 69(9):5228–5237
Vieira E, Brandao T, Ferreira IM (2013) Evaluation of brewer’s spent yeast to produce flavor enhancer nucleotides: influence of serial repitching. J Agric Food Chem 61(37):8724–8729. doi:10.1021/jf4021619
Vuralhan Z, Morais MA, Tai SL, Piper MD, Pronk JT (2003) Identification and characterization of phenylpyruvate decarboxylase genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl Environ Microbiol 69(8):4534–4541
Vuralhan Z, Luttik MA, Tai SL, Boer VM, Morais MA, Schipper D, Almering MJ, Kotter P, Dickinson JR, Daran JM, Pronk JT (2005) Physiological characterization of the ARO10-dependent, broad-substrate-specificity 2-oxo acid decarboxylase activity of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl Environ Microbiol 71(6):3276–3284. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.6.3276-3284.2005
Wang ZY, He XP, Liu N, Zhang BR (2008) Construction of self-cloning industrial brewing yeast with high-glutathione and low-diacetyl production. Int J Food Sci Technol 43(6):989–994
Willaert R, Nedovic VA (2006) Primary beer fermentation by immobilised yeast—a review on flavour formation and control strategies. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 81(8):1353–1367
Williams RS, Wagner HP (1978) The isolation and identification of new staling related compounds form beer. J Am Soc Brew Chem 36:27–31
Williams RS, Wagner HP (1979) Contribution of hop bitter substances to beer staling mechanisms. J Am Soc Brew Chem 37:13–19
Xiao W, Rank GH (1988) The yeast ILV2 gene is under general amino acid control. Genome/National Research Council Canada = Genome/Conseil National de Recherches Canada 30(6):984–986
Yoshimoto H, Fujiwara D, Momma T, Ito C, Sone H, Kaneko Y, Tamai Y (1998) Characterization of the ATF1 and Lg-ATF1 genes encoding alcohol acetyltransferases in the bottom fermenting yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus. J Ferment Bioeng 86:15–20
Yoshioka K, Hashimoto N (1981) Ester formation by alcohol acetyltransferase from brewers yeast. Agr Biol Chem 45(10):2183–2190
Younis OS, Stewart GG (1998) Sugar uptake and subsequent ester and higher alcohol production by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Inst Brew 104:255–264
Younis OS, Stewart GG (1999) The effect of malt wort, very high gravity malt wart and very high gravity adjunct wort on volatile production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Am Soc Brew Chem 57:39–45
Younis OS, Stewart GG (2000) The effect of wort maltose content on volatile production and fermentation performance in brewing yeast. In: Smart K (ed) Brewing yeast fermentation performance, 1st edn. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp 170–176
Yu Z, Zhao H, Li H, Zhang Q, Lei H, Zhao M (2012) Selection of Saccharomyces pastorianus variants with improved fermentation performance under very high gravity wort conditions. Biotechnol Lett 34(2):365–370. doi:10.1007/s10529-011-0780-8
Yukiko K, Fumihiko O, Keiji M, Toshihiko A (2001) Control of higher alcohol production by manipulation of the BAP2 gene in brewing yeast. J Am Soc Brew Chem 59(4):157–162
Zhang C, Liu Y, Qi Y, Zhang J, Dai L, Lin X, Xiao D (2013) Increased esters and decreased higher alcohols production by engineered brewer’s yeast strains. Eur Food Res Technol 236:1009–1014
Zhang J, Zhang C, Wang J, Dai L, Xiao D (2014) Expression of the gene Lg-ATF1 encoding alcohol acetyltransferases from brewery lager yeast in chinese rice wine yeast. In: Proceedings of the 2012 international conference on applied biotechnology (ICAB 2012). Springer, Berlin, pp 43–51
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Pires, E., Brányik, T. (2015). By-products of Beer Fermentation. In: Biochemistry of Beer Fermentation. SpringerBriefs in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-15189-2_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-15189-2_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-15188-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-15189-2
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)