Skip to main content

Fetus as a Patient During the First and Second Trimesters of Growth and Development

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Human Fetal Growth and Development

Abstract

Fetus as a patient is a new concept which is starting to get more prominence in the field of obstetrics and gynecology along with other fields of medicine like pediatric cardiology, pediatric neurology and surgery and even among basic biomedical scientists. Fetal medicine depends on the well being of the in utero fetus during the time of pregnancy and it mainly focuses on the different aspects of repairing and healing various fetal abnormalities which might appear during the whole duration of pregnancy. Previously treatment was restricted to the neonatal periods but with the recent advancements in the basic science of medicine and surgery there is a high possibility to detect and treat any anomaly of the fetus prenatally.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Mohammed NB, Bui TH. Fetus as a patient: art and science of fetal medicine. Pak Med Assoc. 2010;60(6):417–8.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Brahmaiah U, Ratha C. Fetus as a patient. Fetal medicine. JIACM. 2012;13(3):223.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Deka D, Sharma N, Dadhwal V, Mittal S. Successful application of middle cerebral artery peak systolic velocity to time intrauterine transfusions in Rh isoimmunised fetus. J Obstet Gynecol India. 2006;56:534–6.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Montenegro N, Beires J, Pereira L. Reverse end-diastolic umbilical artery flow at 11 weeks gestation. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1995;5:141–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Bonilla-Musoles F. Ecografía Vaginal; Doppler y Tridimensión. Madrid: Editorial Panamericana; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Kurjak A, Kupesic S, Banovic I. The study of morphology and circulation of early embryo by 3D ultrasound and power Doppler. J Perinat Med. 1999;27:145–57.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Kupesic S, Bekavac I, Bjelos D, et al. Assessment of endometrial receptivity by transvaginal color Doppler and three-dimensional power Doppler ultrasonography in patients undergoing in vitro fertilization procedures. Ultrasound Med. 2001;20:125–34.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Jauniaux E, Burton GJ, Moscoso GJ, et al. Development of the early placenta—morphometric study. Placenta. 1992;12:269–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Sterzik K, Grab D, Sasse V, Hutter W, Rosenbusch B, Terinde R. Doppler sonographic findings and their correlation with implantation and in an in-vitro fertilization program. Fertil Steril. 1989;52:825–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Campbell S, Pearce JMF. Ultrasound in obstetrics and gynaecology. In: McDonald RR, editor. Scientific basis of obstetrics and gynaecology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1985. p. 304–9.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Arabin B, van Eyck J, Wisser J, Versmold H, Weizel HK. Fetal behavior in multiple pregnancy: methodologic, clinical and scientific aspects. Gegurtshilfe Frauenheilkd. 1991;51:86–75.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Nijhuis JG, editor. Fetal behavior, developmental and perinatal aspects. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1992. p. 3–17. de Vries JIP. The first trimester.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Rosatelli MC, Saba L. Prenatal diagnosis of b-thalassaemias and haemoglobinopathies. Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2009;1(1). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3033155/

  14. De Vore GR. The use of color Doppler imaging to examine the fetal heart. Normal and pathologic anatomy. In: Jaffe R, editor. Color Doppler imaging in obstetrics and gynecology. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1992. p. 121–54.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Bonilla-Musoles F, Raga F, Ballester MJ, et al. Early detection of embryonic malformations by transvaginal and color Doppler sonography. J Ultrasound Med. 1994;13:347–55.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Chasen ST, Skupski DW, McCullough LB, Chervenak FA. Ethical dimensions of nuchal translucency screening. In: Carrera JM, Chervenak FA, Kurjak A, editors. Controversies in perinatal medicine, studies on the fetus as a patient. New York: Parthenon Publishing Group; 2003. p. 397.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Carrera JM, Chervenak FA, Kurjak A, editors. Controversies in perinatal medicine, studies on the fetus as a patient. New York: Parthenon Publishing Group; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Bonilla-Musoles F, Machado L, Osborne N, Raga F, Lima-Couy I, Bonilla Jr F, Torres F. Early diagnosis of congenital anomalies 3. Alterations of fetal arterial and venous flow. In: Carrera JM, Chervenak FA, Kurjak A, editors. Controversies in perinatal medicine, studies on the fetus as a patient. New York: Parthenon Publishing Group; 2003. p. 114–38.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Bonilla-Musoles F, Machado L, Osborne N, Raga F, Lima-Couy I, Bonilla Jr F, Torres F. Early diagnosis of congenital anomalies 2. Thoracic and abdominal malformations. In: Carrera JM, Chervenak FA, Kurjak A, editors. Controversies in perinatal medicine, studies on the fetus as a patient. New York: Parthenon Publishing Group; 2003. p. 104.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Blaas HG, Eik-Nes S, Vainio T, Vogt IC. Alobar holoprosencephaly at 9 weeks’ gestational age visualized by two- and three-dimensional ultrasound. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. New York: Parthenon Publishing Group, London; 2000;16:62–5.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Bonilla-Musoles F, Machado L, Osborne N, Raga F, Lima-Couy I, Bonilla Jr F, Machado F. Early diagnosis of congenital anomalies 4. Adnexal markers of aneuploidy. In: Carrera JM, Chervenak FA, Kurjak A, editors. Controversies in perinatal medicine, studies on the fetus as a patient. New York: Parthenon Publishing Group; 2003. p. 137.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Matias A, Gomes C, Flack N, Montenegro N, Nicolaides KH. Screening for chromosomal abnormalities at 10–14 weeks: the role of ductus venosus blood flow. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1998;12:380–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Borrell A, Antolín E, Costa D, Farré MT, Martínez JM, Fortuny A. Abnormal ductus venosus blood flow in trisomy 21 fetuses during early pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998;179:1612–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Antolín E, Comas C, Torrents M, et al. The role of ductus venosus blood flow assessment in screening for chromosomal abnormalities at 10–16 weeks of gestation. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2001;17:295–300.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Comas C, Antolín E, Torrents M, et al. Early screening for chromosomal abnormalities: new strategies combining biochemical, sonographic and Doppler parameters. Prenat Neonat Med. 2001;6:95–102.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Comas C, Torrents M, Antolín E, et al. First-trimester sonographic markers for chromosomal abnormalities. Ultrasound Rev Obstet Gynecol. 2002;2:213–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Agrawal SK, Singh P, Kumar P. MRI in antenatal and perinatal congenital anomalies. J Neonat 2008;22(4):223–8.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Yasuyuki Y, Tomohico N, Yasuko A, et al. MR imaging of the fetus by a HASTE sequence. Am J Roentgenol. 1997;168:513–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Cooper WO, Hernandez-Diaz S, Arbogast PG, et al. Major congenital malformations after first-trimester exposure to ACE inhibitors. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:2443–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Kennedy D. Classifying drugs in pregnancy. Aust Prescr. 2014;37:38–40.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Milojkovic D, Apperley JF. How I treat leukemia during pregnancy. American Society of Hematology, Submitted 17 Aug 2013; Accepted 4 Nov 2013. Prepublished online as Blood First Edition paper, 22 Nov 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Douglas Wilson R. Principles of human teratology: drug, chemical, and infectious exposure. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2007;29(11):911–7. Philadelphia.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Gunatilake R, Patil AS. Drugs in pregnancy. Merck Manual Online for Health Care Professionals. 2013. www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gynecology_and_obstetrics/drugs_in_pregnancy/drugs_in_pregnancy.html?qt=drugspregnancy&alt=sh. See more at: http://www.uspharmacist.com/content/c/43164/#sthash.xQjRtkWc.dpuf.

  34. Holmes LB, Harvey EA, Coull BA, Huntington KB, Khoshbin S, Hayes AM, et al. The teratogenicity of anticonvulsant drugs. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1132–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Muaed Jamal Alomar. Factors affecting the development of adverse drug reactions (Review article) Faculty of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Clinical Pharmacy Department, United Arab Emirates. Available online 24 Feb 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Meloni P, D’Angeli I, Piazze J, Cerekya A, Simari T, Pala A. First trimester PAPP-A levels associated with early prediction of pregnancy induced hypertension. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2009;28(4):361–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. World Health Organization. Guidelines for the programmatic management of drug-resistant tuberculosis: emergency update 2008. Geneva: World Health Organization, Stop TB Department; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Blumberg HM, Burman WJ, Chaisson RE, Daley CL, Etkind SC, Friedman LN, et al. American Thoracic Society, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America: treatment of tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167(4):603–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Ormerod P. Tuberculosis in pregnancy and the puerperium. Thorax. 2001;56(6):494–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Shin S, Guerra D, Rich M, Seung KJ, Mukherjee J, Joseph K, et al. Treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis during pregnancy: a report of 7 cases. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36(8):996–1003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. World Health Organization. The treatment of tuberculosis guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Cancer during pregnancy, publications & resources, Annual Report. Scientific Review Books SOGC News Reports. Cancer during Pregnancy. http://sogc.org/publications/cancerduringpregnancy/2/3.

  43. Cardonick E, Iacobucci A. Use of chemotherapy during human pregnancy. Lancet Oncol. 2004;5(5):283–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Amant F. Safety of chemotherapy in pregnancy. Clin Adv Hematol Oncol. 2012;10(4):258–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Matalon ST, Ornoy A, Fishman A, Drucker L, Lishner M. The effect of 6-mercaptopurine on early human placental explants. Hum Reprod. 2005;20(5):1390–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Abdel-Hady e-S, Hemida RA, Gamal A, El- Zafarany M, Toson E, El-Bayoumi MA. Cancer during pregnancy: perinatal outcome after in utero exposure to chemotherapy. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2012;286(2):283–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Cassina M, Salviati L, Di Gianantonio E, Clementi M. Genetic susceptibility to teratogens: state of the art. Reprod Toxicol. 2012;34(2):186–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Norton ME. Teratogen update: fetal effects of indomethacin. Administration during pregnancy. Teratology. 1997;56:282–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Traeger A, Noschel H, Zaumseil J. Pharmacokinetics of indomethacin in pregnancy and parturient women and in their newborn infants. Zentralbl Gynakol. 1973;95:635–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Moise Jr KJ, Ou C-N, Kirshon B, Cano LE, Rognerud C, Carpenter Jr RJ. Placental transfer of indomethacin in the human pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990;162:549–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Klein KL, Scott WJ, Clark KE, Wilson JG. Indomethacin- placental transfer, cytotoxicity, and teratology in the rat. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1981;141:448–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Aselton PA, Jick H, Milunsky A, Hunter JR, Stergachis A. First-trimester drug use and congenital disorders. Obstet Gynecol. 1985;65:451–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Katz Z, Lancet M, Borenstein R, Chemke J. Absence of teratogenicity of indomethacin in ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Int J Fertil. 1984;29:186–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Briggs GG, Freeman RK, Yaffe SJ, editors. Drugs in pregnancy and lactation. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1994. p. 443–52.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Hallak M, Reiter AA, Ayres NA, Moise KJ. Indomethacin for preterm labor: fetal toxicity in a dizygotic twin gestation. Obstet Gynecol. 1991;78:911–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Moise Jr KJ, Huhta JC, Sharif DS, Ou C-N, Kirshon B, Wasserstrum N, Cano L. Indomethacin in the treatment of premature labor: effects on the fetal ductus arteriosus. N Engl J Med. 1988;319:327–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Hickok DE, Hollenbach KA, Reilley SF, Nyberg DA. The association between decreased amniotic fluid volume and treatment with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents for preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989;160:1525–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Bivins HA, Newman RB, Fyfe DA, Campbell BA, Stramm SL. Randomized trial of oral indomethacin and terbulatine sulfate for the long-term suppression of preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;169:1065–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Recommendations and guidelines for peri natal medicine, an initiative of World Association of peri natal Medicine, World Association of Perinatal Medicine (Wapm) & Matres Mundi International. Barcelona; Editor-in-Chief: José M. Carrera, 2007. http://www.wapm.info/portals/0/recommendations_perinatal.pdf.

  60. The Antiretroviral Pregnancy Registry. Kendle Media. http://apregistry.com/index.htm. HIV positive pregnant women and antiretroviral treatment. From MicrobeWiki, the student edited microbiology resource. 2012.

  61. HIV Programme, WHO. Antiretroviral Drugs for treating pregnant women and preventing HIV infection in infants: Towards Universal access. Recommendations for a public health approach, 2006 version. Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/guidelines/pmtctguidelines3.pdf.

  62. Mandelbrot L, et al. Case report: nucleoside analogue-induced lactic acidosis in the third trimester of pregnancy. AIDS. 2003;17(2):272–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Sarner L, Fakoya A. Acute onset lactic acidosis and pancreatitis in the third trimester of pregnancy in HIV-1 positive women taking antiretroviral medication. Sex Transm Infect. 2002;78(1):58–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. Antiretroviral Pregnancy Registry Steering Committee. Antiretroviral Pregnancy Registry international interim report for 1 January 1989 – 31 July 2005. Wilmington, Registry Coordinating Center, 2005 (http://www.APRegistry.com. Accessed 13 Jul 2006.

  65. Mandelbrot L, et al. Lamivudine-zidovudine combination for prevention of maternal-infant transmission of HIV-1. JAMA. 2001;285(16):2083–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Dwyer B, Lyell DJ. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Chapter 11. In: Stevenson DK, Benitz WE, Sunshine P, Hintz SR, Druzin ML, editors. Fetal and neonatal brain injury. 4th ed. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press; 2009. p. 146.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Riera C. Observations on ‘seroepidemiology study of Leishmania infantum infection in Castilla-Leon, Spain’. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005;73:231.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Russo R, Nigro LC, Minniti S, et al. Visceral leishmaniasis in HIV infected patients: treatment with high dose liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome). J Infect. 1996;32:133–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Laguna F, Videla S, Jimenez-Mejias ME, et al. Amphotericin B lipid complex versus meglumine antimoniate in the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in patients infected with HIV: a randomized pilot study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2003;52:464–8. 37. Bern C, Adler-Moore J, Berenguer J, et al. Liposomal amphotericin B for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:917–24.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Pintado V, Martin-Rabadan P, Rivera ML, Moreno S, Bonza E. Visceral leishmaniasis in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected and non-HIV-infected patients. A comparative study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2001;80:54–73.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Laguna F. Treatment of leishmaniasis in HIVpositive patients. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2003;97 Suppl 1:135–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Perez-Molina JA, Lopez-Velez R, Montilla P, Guerrero A. Pentamidine isethionate as secondary prophylaxis against visceral leishmaniasis in HIV-positive patients. AIDS. 1996;10:237–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Pappas PG, Pottage JC, Powderly WG, et al. Blastomycosis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiencysyndrome. Ann Intern Med. 1992;116:847–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Ampel NM. Coccidioidomycosis in persons infected with HIV type 1. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1174–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Potasman I, Beny A, Seligmann H. Neuropsychiatric problems in 2,500 long-term young travelers to the tropics. J Travel Med. 2000;7:5–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Van Riemsdijk MM, Sturkenboom MC, Ditters JM, et al. Low body mass index is associated with an increased risk of neuropsychiatric adverse events and concentration impairment in women on mefloquine. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2004;57:506–12.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Van Luin M, Van der Ende ME, Richter C, et al. Lower atovaquone/proguanil concentrations in patients taking efavirenz, lopinavir/ritonavir or atazanavir/ritonavir. AIDS. 2010;24:1223–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Bax M, Tydeman C, Flodmark O. Clinical and MRI correlates of cerebral palsy: the European Cerebral Palsy Study. JAMA. 2006;296:1602–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Wu YW, Croen LA, Shah SJ, et al. Cerebral palsy in a term population: risk factors and neuroimaging findings. Pediatrics. 2006;118:690–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Evain-Brion D. Hormonal regulation of fetal growth. Horm Res. 1994;42:207–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Woods KA, Camacho-Hubner C, Savagex MO, et al. Intrauterine growth retardation and postnatal growth failure associated with deletion of the insulinlike growth factor I gene. N Engl J Med. 1996; 335:1363–7.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Cornblath M, Schwartz R. Disorders of carbohydrate metabolism in infancy. 3rd ed. Boston: Blackwell; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Lemons JA, Ridenour R, Orsini EN. Congenital absence of the pancreas and intrauterine growth retardation. Pediatrics. 1979;64:255–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Limesand SW, Jensen J, Hutton JC, et al. Diminished beta-cell replication contributes to reduced beta-cell mass in fetal sheep with intrauterine growth restriction. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005;288:R1297–305.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Philip AGS, Stevenson DK, Hay Jr WW. Intrauterine growth restriction. Chapter 7. In: Stevenson DK, Benitz WE, Philip S, Hintz SR, Druzin ML, editors. Fetal and neonatal brain injury. 4th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2009. p. 92.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Gluckman PD, Gunn AJ, Wray A, et al. Congenital idiopathic growth hormone deficiency associated with prenatal and early postnatal growth failure. The International Board of the Kabi Pharmacia International Growth Study. J Pediatr. 1992;121:920–3.

    Google Scholar 

  87. DiGiacomo JE, Hay WW. Fetal glucose metabolism and oxygen consumption during sustained hypoglycemia. Metabolism. 1990;39:193–202. 40.

    Google Scholar 

  88. O’Callaghan MJ, Harvey JM, Tudehope DI, et al. Aetiology and classification of small for gestational age infants. J Paediatr Child Health. 1997;33:213–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Koenig JM, Christensen RD. Incidence, neutrophil kinetics, and natural history of neonatal neutropenia associated with maternal hypertension. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:557–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Kennedy A. Fetal ultrasound. Curr Probl Diagn Radiol. 2000;29:109–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Lumey LH. Decreased birthweights in infants after maternal in utero exposure to the Dutch famine of 1944–1945. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 1992;6:240–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Sorem KA, Druzin ML. Maternal diseases that affect fetal development. In: Stevenson DK, Benitz WE, Sunshine P, editors. Fetal and neonatal brain injury: mechanisms, management, and risks of practice. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2003. p. 191–211.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  93. Moore TR. Diabetes in pregnancy. In: Creasy RK, Resnik R, Iams JD, editors. Maternal–fetal medicine: principles and practice. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2004. p. 1023–61.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Gabbay-Benziv R, Reece EA, Wang F, Yang P. Birth defects in pregestational diabetes: Defect range, glycemic threshold and pathogenesis. World J Diabetes. 2015;6(3):481–8. doi: 10.4239/wjd.v6.i3.481.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Dwyer B, Druzin ML. Maternal diseases that affect fetal development. Chapter 8. In: Stevenson DK, Benitz WE, Philip S, Hintz SR, Druzin ML, editors. Fetal and neonatal brain injury. 4th ed. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press; 2009. p. 113.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Hahn JS, Lemire RJ. Specific conditions associated with fetal and neonatal brain injury congenital malformations of the brain. Chapter22. In: Stevenson DK, Benitz WE, Philip S, Hintz SR, Druzin ML, editors. Fetal and neonatal brain injury. 4th ed. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press USA; 2009. p. 288.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Valenti C. Antenatal detection of hemoglobinopathies-a preliminary report. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1973;115:851–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Rodeck CH, Nicolaides KH. Fetoscopy and fetal tissue sampling. Br Med Bull. 1983;39:332–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Moise Jr KJ. Intrauterine transfusion with red cells and platelets. West J Med. 1993;159:318–24. In Fetal Medicine [Special Issue].

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  100. Forestier F, Daffos F, Catherine N, Renard M, Andreus JP. Development of hematopoiesis in normal fetal blood. Blood. 1991;77:2360–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Leduc L, Moise KJ, Carpenter RJ, Cano LE. Fetoplacental blood volume estimation in pregnancies with Rh alloimmunization. Fetal Diagn Ther. 1990;5:138–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Nicolaides KH, Thilaganathan B, Mibashan RS. Cordocentesis in the investigation of fetal erythropoiesis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989;161:1197–200.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Liley AW. Intrauterine transfusion of foetus in haemolytic disease. Br Med J. 1963;2:1107–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  104. Rodeck CH, Kemp JR, Holman CA, Whitmore DN, Kamicki J, Austin MA. Direct intravascular fetal blood transfusion by fetoscopy in severe Rhesus isoimmunisation. Lancet. 1981;1:625–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Bang J, Bock JE, Trolle D. Ultrasound-guided fetal intravenous transfusion for severe rhesus haemolytic disease. Br Med J. 1982;284:373–4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Harman CR, Bowman JM, Manning FA, Menticoglou SM. Intrauterine transfusion-intraperitoneal versus intravascular approach: a case-control comparison. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990;162:1053–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Radunovic N, Lockwood C, Alvarez M, Plecas D, Chitkara U, Berkowitz R. The severely anemic and hydropic isoimmune fetus: changes in fetal hematocrit associated with intrauterine death. Obstet Gynecol. 1992;79:390–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Hallak M, Moise KJ, Hesketh DE, Cano LE, Carpenter RJ. Intravascular transfusion of fetuses with rhesus incompatibility: prediction of fetal outcome by changes in umbilical venous pressure. Obstet Gynecol. 1992;8:1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Deaver JE, Leppert PC, Zaroulis CG. Neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia purpura. Am J Perinatol. 1986;3:127–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Giovangrandi Y, Daffos F, Kaplan C, Forestier F, MacAleese J, Moirot M. Very early intracranial haemorrhage in alloimmune fetal thrombocytopenia (Letter). Lancet. 1990;336:310.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Muller JY, Reznikoff-Etievant MF, Patereau C, Dangu C, Chesnel N. Thrombopenies neo-natales allo-immunes: Etude clinique et biologique de 84 cas. Presse Med. 1985;14:83–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Soyinka JO, Onyeji CO, Omoruyi SI, Owolabi AR, Sarma PV, Cook JM. Pharmacokinetic interactions between ritonavir and quinine in healthy volunteers following concurrent administration. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2010;69:262–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  113. Soyinka JO, Onyeji CO, Omoruyi SI, Owolabi AR, Sarma PV, Cook JM. Effects of concurrent administration of nevirapine on the disposition of quinine in healthy volunteers. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2009;61:439–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  114. Newton PN, Ward S, Angus BJ, et al. Early treatment failure in severe malaria resulting from abnormally low plasma quinine concentrations. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2006;100:184–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Dorsey G, Staedke S, Clark TD, Njama-Meya D, Nzarubara B, Maiteki-Sebuguzi C, Dokomajilar C, Kamya MR, Rosenthal PJ. Combination therapy for uncomplicated falciparum malaria in Ugandan children: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2007;297:2210–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. German P, Greenhouse B, Coates C, et al. Hepatotoxicity due to a drug interaction between amodiaquine plus artesunate and efavirenz. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:889–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Kredo T, van der Walt JS, Mauff K, Weisner L, Maartens G, Cohen K, Smith P, Barnes KI. Nevirapine increases lumefantrine exposure in HIV-infected patients. 17th conference on oportunistic infections and retroviruses. Feb 2010. San Francisco. Abstract N-140.

    Google Scholar 

  118. Gazzard B, Lundgren J. editors. British HIV Association and British Infection Association guidelines for the treatment of opportunistic infection in HIV-seropositive individuals 2011. HIV Medicine. Editorial Board: Jose’ Gatell, Margaret Johnson, Jurgen Rockstroh, Schlomo Staszewski, Ian Williams. British HIV, 2011 British HIV Association HIV Medicine. 2011;12 (Suppl 2):1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  119. Chamberlain NR. Infections of the fetus and newborn infant: Congenital and perinatal infections. Lecture. 2004. http://www.atsu.edu/faculty/chamberlain/website/lectures/lecture/congen.htm.

  120. Daffos F, Capella-Pavlovsky M, Forestier F. A new procedure for fetal blood sampling in utero: preliminary results of fifty-three cases. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1983;146:985–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Rodis JF, Hovick TJ, Quinn DL, Rosengren SS, Tattersall P. Human parvovirus infection in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1988;72:733–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Anderson LJ, Tsou C, Parker RA, et al. Detection of antibodies and antigens of human parvovirus B 19 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Clin Microbiol. 1986;24:522–6.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  123. Peters MT, Nicolaides KH. Cordocentesis for the diagnosis and treatment of human fetal parvovirus infection. Obstet Gynecol. 1990;75:501–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Naides SJ, Weiner CP. Antenatal diagnosis and palliative treatment of non-immune hydrops fetalis secondary to fetal parvovirus B 19 infection. Prenat Diagn. 1989;9:105–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Klein JO, Baker CJ, Remington JS, et al. Current concepts of infection of the fetus and newborn infants. In: Remington JS, Klein JO, Wilson CB, Baker CJ, editors. Infectious diseases of the fetus and newborn infant. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2006. p. 1–25.

    Google Scholar 

  126. Clinical Guidelines. Section B: Obstetrics and Midwifery Care. Women and Newborn Health Service, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Perth, Western Australia. 2001. Infection Control Policy Manual 4.2: Varicella-Zoster: Varicella (Chicken Pox) in Pregnancy. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=7495AA62EB86E879268B3E2C300F06CF?doi=10.1.1.445.3483&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

  127. Maternal to Fetal Infections. Definition of maternal to fetal. Infections by Medical dictionary. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Maternal+to+Fetal+Infections.

  128. Willyard C. Tinkering in the womb: the future of fetal surgery Washington, DC. Nat Med. 2008;14:1176–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Pranke P, Onsten T. Umbilical cord blood transfusion and its therapeutic potentialities. Chapter 5. In: Bhattacharya N, Stubblefield P, editors. Pregnancy specific substances in regenerative medicine. 1st ed. London: Springer Publications; 2011. p. 83–93.

    Google Scholar 

  130. Gluckman E. Umbilical cord blood transfusions in low-income countries. Lancet Hematol. 2015;2:e85–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  131. Surbek DV, Glanzmann R, Senn H-P, et al. Can cord blood be used for autologous transfusion in preterm neonates? Eur J Pediatr. 2000;159:790–91. 12. Luban NLC. Neonatal red blood cell transfusions. Vox Sang. 2004;87(Suppl 2):S184–8.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Luban NLC. Neonatal red blood cell transfusions. Vox Sang. 2004;87 suppl 2:S184–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  133. Bhattacharya N, Mukherjee K, Chettri MK, et al. A study report of 174 units of placental umbilical cord whole blood transfusion in 62 patients as a rich source of fetal hemoglobin supply in different indications of blood transfusion. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol. 2001;28(1):47–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Garritsen HSP, Brune T, Louwen F, et al. Autologus red cells derived from cord blood: collection, preparation, storage and quality controls with optimal additive storage medium (Sag-mannitol). Transfus Med. 2003;13:303–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Bhattacharya N. Placental umbilical cord whole blood transfusion: a safe and genuine blood substitute for patients of the under-resourced world at emergency. J Am Coll Surg. 2005;200(4):557–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Walsh TS, Salch E-E-D. Anaemia during critical illness. Br J Anaesth. 2006;97:278–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Widing L, Bechensteen AG, Mirlashari MR, et al. Evaluation of nonleukoreduced red blood cell transfusion units collected at delivery from the placenta. Transfusion. 2007;47:1481–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Strauss RG. Autologous transfusions for neonates using placental blood; a cautionary note. Am J Dis Child. 1992;146:21–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Flake A, Zanjani E. In utero hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: ontogenic opportunities and biologic barriers. Blood. 1999;94:2179–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Fleischmam R, Mintz B. Prevention of genetic anaemias in mice by microinjection of normal hematopoietic stem cells into the fetal placenta. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1979;76:5736–40. doi:10.1073/pnas.76.11.5736.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  141. Morris RK, Chan BC, Kilby MD. Review: advances in fetal therapy. Obstet Gynecol. 2010;12:94–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  142. Lindton B, Markling L, Ringden O, Westgren M. Mixed lymphocyte culture of human fetal liver cells. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2000;15:71–8. doi:10.1159/000020979.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Tiblad E, Westgren M. Fetal stem-cell transplantation. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2008;22:189–201. doi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2007.07.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Tabor A, Vestergaard CH, Lidegaard O. Fetal loss rate after chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis: an 11-year national registry study. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2009;34:19–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Adzick NS. Open fetal surgery for life-threatening fetal anomalies. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2010;15:1–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Harrison MR, Adzick NS, Longaker MT, et al. Successful repair in utero of a fetal diaphragmatic hernia after removal of herniated viscera from the left thorax. New Eng J Med. 1990;322:1582–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Harrison MR, Adzick NS, Bullard KM, et al. Correction of congenital diaphragmatic hernia in utero VII: a prospective trial. J Pediatr Surg. 1997;32:1637–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Jani JC, Nicolaides KH, Gratacos E, et al. Severe diaphragmatic hernia treated by fetal endoscopic tracheal occlusion. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2009;34:304–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Iqbal CW. Chapter 3. Congenital diaphragmatic hernia. Page no: 14. Brad Feltis and Christopher Muratore: Chief editors. Fetal diagnosis and therapy: a reference handbook for pediatric surgeons. American Pediatric Surgical Association from the Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy Committee, Apr 2013. https://www.eapsa.org/about-apsa/committees/?cid=FETAL.

  150. Parkes SE, Muir KR, Southern L, Cameron AH, Darbyshire PJ, Stevens MC. Neonatal tumours: a thirty-year population-based study. Med Pediatr Oncol. 1994;22:309–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Isaacs H Jr. Perinatal (congenital and neonatal) neoplasms: a report of 110 cases. Pediatr Pathol. 1985;3:165–216. 3. Werb P, Scurry J, Ostor A, Fortune D, Attwood H. Survey of congenital tumors in perinatal necropsies. Pathology. 1992;24:247–53.

    Google Scholar 

  152. Lonergan GJ, Schwab CM, Suarez ES, Carlson CL. Neuroblastoma, ganglioneuroblastoma, and ganglioneuroma: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radio- Graph. 2002;22:911–34.

    Google Scholar 

  153. Sklansky M, Greenberg M, Lucas V, Gruslin-Giroux A. Intrapericardial teratoma in a twin fetus: diagnosis and management. Obstet Gynecol. 1997;89:807–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Woodward PJ, Sohaey R, Kennedy A, Koeller KK. From the archives of the AFIP: a comprehensive review of fetal tumors with pathologic correlation. Capt Radio Graph. 2005;25:215–42. doi:10.1148/rg.251045156. Published online.

    Google Scholar 

  155. Keslar PJ, Buck JL, Selby DM. Infantile hemangioendothelioma of the liver revisited. Radio Graph. 1993;13:657–70.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Corey W. Iqbal. Saccrococcygeal tumors. Chapter 4, Page no: 21. Brad Feltis and Christopher Muratore: Chief editors. Fetal diagnosis and therapy: a reference handbook for pediatric surgeons. American Pediatric Surgical Association from the Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy Committee, Apr 2013. https://www.eapsa.org/about-apsa/committees/?cid=FETAL.

  157. Shaer CM, Chescheir N, Schulkin J. Myelomeningocele: a review of the epidemiology, genetics, risk factors for conception, prenatal diagnosis, and prognosis for affected individuals. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2007;62:471–9. PubMed: 17572919.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Boulet SL, Yang Q, Mai C, Kirby RS, Collins JS, Robbins JM, Meyer R, Canfield MA, Mulinare J. Trends in the postfortification prevalence of spina bifida and anencephaly in the United States. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2008;82:527–32. PubMed: 18481813.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Ferschl M, Ball R, Lee H, Rollins MD. Anesthesia for in utero repair of myelomeningocele. Anesthesiology. 2013;118(5):1211–23. doi:10.1097/ALN.0b013e31828ea597).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  160. Tulipan N, Bruner JP, Hernanz-Schulman M, Lowe LH, Walsh WF, Nickolaus D, Oakes WJ. Effect of intrauterine myelomeningocele repair on central nervous system structure and function. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1999;31:183–8. PubMed: 10705927.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Sutton LN, Adzick NS, Bilaniuk LT, Johnson MP, Crombleholme TM, Flake AW. Improvement in hindbrain herniation demonstrated by serial fetal magnetic resonance imaging following fetal surgery for myelomeningocele. JAMA. 1999;282:1826–31. PubMed: 10573273.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Corey W. Iqbal and Abdalla E. Zarroug. Fetal Neoplasms, Chapter 5, Page nos:19–23. Brad Feltis and Christopher Muratore: Chief editors. Fetal diagnosis and therapy: a reference handbook for pediatric surgeons. American Pediatric Surgical Association from the Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy Committee, Apr 2013. https://www.eapsa.org/about-apsa/committees/?cid=FETAL.

  163. Chaoui R. The four-chamber view: four reasons why it seems to fail in screening for cardiac abnormalities and suggestions to improve detection rates. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2003;22:3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Holley DG, Martin GR, Brenner JL, et al. Diagnosis and management of fetal cardiac tumors: a multicenter experience and review of the published reports. J Am Call Cardiol. 1995;25:516–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  165. Groves AM, Fagg NL, Cook AC, Allan LD. Cardiac tumors in intrauterine life. Arch Dis Child. 1992;67:1189–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  166. Sklansky M. Fetal cardiac malformations and arrhythmias. Detection, diagnosis, management, and prognosis. In: Creasy RK, Resnik R, Iams JD, Lockwood CJ, Moore TR, editors. Creasy and Resnik’s Maternal and Fetal Medicine: Principles and Practice. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2009. p. 305–46.

    Google Scholar 

  167. Gava G, Buoso G, Beltrame GL, et al. Cardiac rhabdomyoma as a marker for the prenatal detection of tuberous sclerosis: case report. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1990;97:1154–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Tegnander E, Eik-Nes S. The examiner’s ultrasound experience has a signify cant impact on the detection rate of congenital heart defects at the second-trimester fetal examination. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2006;28:8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Weber H, Kleinman C, Hellenbrand W, et al. Development of a benign intrapericardial tumor between 20 and 40 weeks of gestation. Pediatr Cardiol. 1988;9:153.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Carvalho J. The fetal heart or the lymphatic system or … ? The quest for the etiology of increased nuchal translucency. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2005;25:215.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Jones K. Smith’s recognizable patterns of human malformation. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  172. Trines J, Hornberger LK. Evolution of heart disease in utero. Pediatr Cardiol. 2004;25:287.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Hornberger LK, Sanders SP, Sahn DJ, et al. In utero pulmonary artery and aortic growth and potential for progression of pulmonary outflow tract obstruction in tetralogy of Fallot. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;25:739.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Hornberger LK, Sanders SP, Rein AJ, et al. Left heart obstructive lesions and left ventricular growth in the midtrimester fetus: A longitudinal study. Circulation. 1995;92:1531.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Tworetzky W, Wilkins-Haug L, Jennings RW, et al. Balloon dilation ofsevere aortic stenosis in the fetus. Circulation. 2004;11:2125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  176. Makikallio K, McElhinney D, Levine J, et al. Fetal aortic valve stenosis andthe evolution of hypoplastic left heart syndrome: patient selection for fetal intervention. Circulation. 2006;113:1401.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Cooper M, Enderlein M, Dyson D, et al. Fetal echocardiography: retrospective review of clinical experience and an evaluation of indications. Obstet Gynecol. 1995;86:577.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Ville Y. Twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome: time to forget the Quintero staging system? Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2007;30:924–7. doi:10.1002/uog.5221.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Yamamoto M, El Murr L, Robyr R, Leleu F, Takahashi Y, Ville Y. Incidence and impact of peri–operative complications in 175 fetoscopy guided laser coagulations of chorionic plate anastomoses in fetofetal transfusion syndrome before 26 weeks of gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;193:1110–6. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2005.07.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Senat M, Deprest J, Boulvain M, Paupe A, Winer N, Ville Y. Endoscopic laser surgery versus serial amnioreduction for severe twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:182–4. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa032597.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  181. Bánhidy F, Lowry RB, Czeizel AE. Risk and Benefit of Drug Use During Pregnancy. Int J Med Sci 2005;2(3):100–6. doi: 10.7150/ijms.2.100.

  182. Westgren M, Ringden O, Eik-Nes S, Ek S, Anvret M, Brubakk A-M, et al. Lack of evidence of permanent engraftment after in utero fetal stem cell transplantation in congenital hemoglobinopathies. Transplantation. 1996;61:1176–9. doi:10.1097/00007890-199604270-00010.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Peranteau WH, Endo M, Adibe OO, Flake AW. Evidence for an immune barrier after in utero hematopoietic-cell transplantation. Blood. 2007;109:1331–3. doi:10.1182/blood-2006-04-018606.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  184. Ramachandra DL, Shaw SSW, Shangaris P, Loukogeorgakis S, Guillot PV, De Copp P, David AL. In utero therapy for congenital disorders using amniotic fluid stem cells. Review Article published: 19 Dec 2014. doi:10.3389/fphar.2014.00270.

  185. Tsai MS, Hwang S-M, Tsai Y-L, Cheng F-C, Lee J-L, Chang Y-J. Clonal amnioticfluid-derivedstemcellsexpresscharacteristicsofboth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;191:309–14. doi:10.1095/biolreprod.105.046029.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  186. DeCoppi P, Bartsch Jr G, Siddiqui MM, Xu T, Santos CC, Perin L, et al. Isolation of amniotic stem cell lines with potential for therapy. Nat Biotechnol. 2007;25(100):106. doi:10.1038/nbt1274.

    Google Scholar 

  187. Gosden CM. Amniotic fluid cell types and culture. Br Med Bull. 1983;39:348–54.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Delo DM, De Coppi P, Bartsch G. Amniotic fluid and placental stem cells. Methods Enzymol. 2006;419:426–38. doi:10.1016/S0076-6879(06) 19017-5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Chan J, Kumar S, Fisk NM. Firsttrimesterembryo-fetoscopic and ultrasound-guided fetal blood sampling for ex vivo viral transduction of cultured human fetal mesenchymal stem cells. Hum Reprod (Oxford, Engl). 2008;23:2427–37. doi:10.1093/humrep/den302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  190. Ditadi A, deCoppi P, Picone O, Gautreau L, Smati R, Six E, et al. Human and murine amniotic fluidc-kitCL in cells display hematopoietic activity. Blood. 2009;113:3953–60. doi:10.1182/blood-2008-10-182105.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Mehta V, Nader KA, Waddington S, David AL. Organtargeted prenatal gene therapy—how far are we? Prenat Diagn. 2011;31:720–34. doi:10.1002/pd.2787.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Shaw SWS, Bollini S. Autologoustransplantationofamnioticfluid- derived mesenchymal stem cells into sheep fetuses. Cell Transplant. 2011;20:1015–31. doi:10.3727/096368910X543402.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Takahama Y. Journey through the thymus: stromal guides for T-cell development and selection. Nat Rev Immunol. 2006;6:127–35. doi:10.1038/ nri1781.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. DiTrapani M, Bassi G, Fontana E, Giacomello L, Pozzobon M, Guillot PV, et al. Immuneregulatorypropertiesofcd117(pos)amniotic fluid stem cells vary according to gestational age. Stem Cells Dev. 2014. doi:10.1089/scd.2014.0234.

    Google Scholar 

  195. Moorefield EC, McKee EE, Solchaga L, Orlando G, Yoo JJ, Walker S, et al. Cloned, CD117selectedhumanamnioticfluidstemcells are capable of modulating the immune response. PLoS ONE. 2011;6, e26535. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026535.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  196. Kaviani A, Perry TE, Dzakovic A, Jennings RW, Ziegler MM, Fauza DO. Theamnioticfluidasasourceofcellsforfetaltissueengineering. J Pediatr Surg. 2001;36:1662–5. doi:10.1053/jpsu.2001.27945.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Schoeberlein A, Holzgreve W, Dudler L, Hahn S, Surbek DV. In utero transplantation of autologous and allogeneic fetal liver stem cell sin ovinefetuses. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;191:1030–6. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2004. 06.042.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Mackenzie TC, Flake AW. Human mesenchymal stem cells persist, demonstrate site-specific multipotential differentiation, and are present in sites of wound healing and tissue regeneration after transplantation into fetal sheep. 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  199. Li H, Gao F, Ma L, Jiang J, Miao J, Jiang M, et al. Therapeutic potential of in utero mesenchymal stemcell (MSCs)transplantation in rat foetuses with spina bifida aperta. J Cell Mol Med. 2012;16:1606–17. doi:10.1111/j.1582- 4934.2011.01470.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  200. Kurjak A, Carrera JM, Mc Cullough LB, Chervenak FA. The ethical concept of the fetus as a patient and the beginning of human life. PERIOD BIOL J 2009;111(3):341–8.

    Google Scholar 

  201. Beller FK, Zlatnik GP. The beginning of human life. J Assist Reprod Genet. 1995;12(8):477–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Niranjan Bhattacharya Dsc, MD, MS, FSOG, FICS, FACS .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Sengupta, P., Naskar, M., Gupta, R., Bose, N., Banerjee, S., Bhattacharya, N. (2016). Fetus as a Patient During the First and Second Trimesters of Growth and Development. In: Bhattacharya, N., Stubblefield, P. (eds) Human Fetal Growth and Development. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14874-8_34

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14874-8_34

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-14873-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-14874-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics