Skip to main content

Procreative Procrastination: The Ethics of Postponed Parenthood

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Preventing Age Related Fertility Loss

Abstract

In recent years, there has been growing concern over the perceived tendency of women to postpone childbearing. In this chapter, we show that some of the responses to the phenomenon of postponed reproduction are deeply problematic. The question of whether it is accurate to construe later motherhood as postponement at all is far from clear. Moreover, public health messages tend to recommend earlier motherhood as a way of avoiding risks, but this is a crude oversimplification: reproduction involves risks whenever it is undertaken. The focus on risk calls into question some of the strategies intended to remedy postponement of parenthood. There is also the question of where men feature in these decisions: they are all but absent in the public health material and media debates. We consider whether technology could offer a solution to postponement of parenthood, whether there are any benefits to postponement, and finally, whether postponed parenthood could itself be seen as part of a broader trend towards neoteny (the delaying of maturity) in human evolution.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Teach girls of 12 to start a family by their late 20s. Mail Online. 2016. http://dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3643954/Teach-girls-12-start-family-late-20s-Doctor-s-plea-fears-career-women-risk-missing-motherhood.html.

  2. Goring R. The cold-hearted calculation when women choose to freeze their eggs. Herald Scotland. 2016. http://heraldscotland.com/opinion/14554697.display/.

  3. You can’t fool your ovaries, doctors tell the over-40s. 2016. thetimes.co.uk/article/you-cant-fool-your-ovaries-experts-warn-the-over-40s-hcb5xvfwr.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Doctors warn of risks to older mothers. The Guardian. 2009. http://theguardian.com/society/2009/jun/15/older-mothers-health-risks.

  5. “Immature” men are leaving it too late to have children. Mail Online. 2016. http://dailymail.co.uk/~/article-3828028/index.html.

  6. Mills M, Rindfuss RR, McDonald P, Te Velde E. Why do people postpone parenthood? Reasons and social policy incentives. Hum Reprod Update. 2011;17(6):848–60.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Eurostat. Fertility statistics. 2016. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Fertility_statistics.

  8. Matthews TJ, Hamilton B, Mean age is on the rise: United States, 2000–2014. NCHS Data Brief. 2016; 232.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Bernstein S, Wiesemann C. Should postponing motherhood via “social freezing” be legally banned? An ethical analysis. Laws. 2014;3(2):282–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Bortolotti L, Cutas D. Reproductive and parental autonomy: an argument for compulsory parental education. Reprod Biomed Online. 2009;19(1):5–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Smajdor A. The ethics of egg donation in the over fifties. Menopause Int. 2008;14(4):173–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Young women’s trust. 2016 annual survey: no country for young women. 2016. http://youngwomenstrust.org/assets/0000/4258/No_country_for_young_women__final_report.pdf.

  13. Eurostat. Unemployment statistics. 2016. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Unemployment_statistics.

  14. Boyd P, DeVigan C, Khoshnood B, Loane M, Garne E, Dolk H. Survey of prenatal screening policies in Europe for structural malformations and chromosome anomalies, and their impact on detection and termination rates for neural tube defects and Down’s syndrome. BJOG. 2008;115(6):689–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Raymond EG, Grimes DA. The comparative safety of legal induced abortion and childbirth in the United States. J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;119(2 Pt 1):215–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Smajdor A. In defense of ectogenesis. Camb Q Healthc Ethics. 2012;21(1):90–103.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Broekmans FJ, Knauff EAH, te Velde ER, Macklon NS, Fauser BC. Female reproductive ageing: current knowledge and future trends. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2007;18(2):58–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Snijders RJM, Sundberg K, Holzgreve W, Henry G, Nicolaides KH. Maternal age- and gestation-specific risk for trisomy 21. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1999;13(3):167–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Johnson KJ, Carozza SE, Chow EJ, Fox EE, Horel S, McLaughlin CC, et al. Parental age and risk of childhood cancer: a pooled analysis. Epidemiology. 2009;20(4):475–83.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Smajdor A. How useful is the concept of the “harm threshold” in reproductive ethics and law? Theor Med Bioeth. 2014;35(5):321–36.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Hart R, Norman RJ. The longer-term health outcomes for children born as a result of IVF treatment. Part II--Mental health and development outcomes. Hum Reprod Update. 2013;19(3):244–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Lazaraviciute G, Kauser M, Bhattacharya S, Haggarty P, Bhattacharya S. A systematic review and meta-analysis of DNA methylation levels and imprinting disorders in children conceived by IVF/ICSI compared with children conceived spontaneously. Hum Reprod Update. 2014;20(6):840–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Davies MJ, Moore VM, Willson KJ, Van Essen P, Priest K, Scott H, et al. Reproductive technologies and the risk of birth defects. N Engl J Med. 2012;366(19):1803–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Kumar N, Singh AK. Trends of male factor infertility, an important cause of infertility: a review of literature. J Hum Reprod Sci. 2015;8(4):191–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Cutas D. Postmenopausal motherhood: immoral, illegal? A case study. Bioethics. 2007;21(8):458–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Shaw RL, Giles DC. Motherhood on ice? A media framing analysis of older mothers in the UK news. Psychol Health. 2009;24(2):221–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Baldwin K, Culley L, Hudson N, Mitchell H. Oocyte cryopreservation for social reasons: demographic profile and disposal intentions of UK users. Reprod Biomed Online. 2015;31(2):239–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Balbo N, Billari F, Mills M. Fertility in advanced societies: a review of research. Eur J Popul. 2013;29(1):1–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Cutas D, Smajdor A. Postmenopausal motherhood reloaded: advanced age and in vitro derived gametes. Hypatia. 2015;30(2):386–402.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Collier R, Sheldon S. Fragmenting fatherhood. A socio-legal study. Oxford: Hart Publishing 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Wischmann T, Thorn P. (Male) infertility: what does it mean to men? New evidence from quantitative and qualitative studies. Reprod Biomed Online. 2013;27(3):236–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Glaser RL, Broman KW, Schulman RL, Eskenazi B, Wyrobek AJ, Jabs EW. The paternal-age effect in Apert syndrome is due, in part, to the increased frequency of mutations in sperm. Am J Hum Genet. 2003;73(4):939–47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Wyrobek AJ, Eskenazi B, Young S, Arnheim N, Tiemann-Boege I, Jabs EW, et al. Advancing age has differential effects on DNA damage, chromatin integrity, gene mutations, and aneuploidies in sperm. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2006;103(25):9601–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Day J, Savani S, Krempley BD, Nguyen M, Kitlinska JB. Influence of paternal preconception exposures on their offspring: through epigenetics to phenotype. Am J Stem Cell. 2016;5(1):11–8.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Svanes C, Koplin J, Skulstad SM, Johannessen A, Bertelsen RJ, Benediktsdottir B, et al. Father’s environment before conception and asthma risk in his children: a multi-generation analysis of the respiratory health in Northern Europe study. Int J Epidemiol. 2016. [online first].

    Google Scholar 

  36. Schmidt L. Should men and women be encouraged to start childbearing at a younger age? Expert Review of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2010;5(2):145–7.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Lemoine ME, Ravitsky V, Sleepwalking into infertility: The need for a public health approach toward advanced maternal age. Am J Bioeth 2015;15(11):37–46.

    Google Scholar 

  38. The doctor warning 15-year-olds about their declining fertility. The Guardian. 2016. http://theguardian.com/education/2016/may/17/the-doctor-warning-15-year-olds-about-their-declining-fertility.

  39. Nargund G. Why boys should also receive fertility education in schools. The Huffington Post. 2016. http://huffingtonpost.co.uk/dr-geeta-nargund/why-boys-should-also-rece_b_11258112.html.

  40. Italy’s fertility day posters aren’t just sexist—they’re echoes of a fascist past. The Guardian. 2016. http://theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/sep/05/italys-fertility-day-posters-sexist-echoes-of-fascist-past.

  41. Scotland GS, McNamee P, Peddie VL, Bhattacharya S. Safety versus success in elective single embryo transfer: women’s preferences for outcomes of in vitro fertilisation. BJOG International. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2007;114(8):977–83.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Eriksson C, Larsson M, Skoog Svanberg A, Tydén T. Reflections on fertility and postponed parenthood—interviews with highly educated women and men without children in Sweden. Uppsala J Med Sci. 2013;118(2):122–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Neels K, Murphy M, Ní Bhrolcháin M, Beaujouan É. Further estimates of the contribution of rising educational participation to fertility postponement: a model-based decomposition for the UK, France and Belgium. In Population Association of America 2014 Annual Meeting, Boston, pp. 1–3; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  44. van Roode T, Sharples K, Dickson N, Paul C. Life-course relationship between socioeconomic circumstances and timing of first birth in a birth cohort. PLoS One. 2017;12(1):e0170170.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Stoop D, van der Veen F, Deneyer M, Nekkebroeck J, Tournaye H. Oocyte banking for anticipated gamete exhaustion (AGE) is a preventive intervention, neither social nor nonmedical. Reprod Biomed Online. 2014;28:548–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Hourvitz A, Machtinger R, Maman E, Baum M, Dor J, Levron J. Assisted reproduction in women over 40 years of age: how old is too old? Reprod Biomed Online. 2009;19:599–603.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Navot D, Bergh PA, Williams MA, Garrisi GJ, Guzman I, Sandler B, Grunfeld L. Poor oocyte quality rather than implantation failure as a cause of age-related decline in female fertility. Lancet. 1991;337:1375–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Dion KK. Delayed parenthood and women’s expectations about the transition to parenthood. Int J Behav Dev. 1995;18(2):315–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Shelton N, Johnson S. “I think motherhood for me was a bit like a double-edged sword”: the narratives of older mothers. J Community Appl Soc Psychol. 2006;16(4):316–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Goisis A, How are children of older mothers doing? Evidence from the United Kingdom. Biodemography and Social Biology 2015;61(3):231–251.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Goisis A, Schneider DC, Myrskylä M. The reversing association between advanced maternal age and child cognitive ability: evidence from three UK birth cohorts. Int J Epidemiol 2017. doi:10.1093/ije/dyw354.

  52. Graham H. Hardship & Health in women’s lives. London: Routledge; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Tough SC, Newburn-Cook C, Johnston DW, Svenson LW, Rose S, Belik J. Delayed childbearing and its impact on population rate changes in lower birth weight, multiple birth, and preterm delivery. Pediatrics. 2002;109(3):399–403.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Boivin J, Rice F, Hay D, Harold G, Lewis A, van den Bree M, Thapar A. Associations between maternal older age, family environment and parent and child wellbeing in families using assisted reproductive techniques to conceive. Soc Sci Med. 2009;68(11):1948–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Mac Dougall K, Beyene Y, Nachtigall RD, ‘Inconvenient biology’: advantages and disadvantages of first’time parenting after age 40 using in vitro fertilization. Human Reproduction 2012:27(4):1058–65.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Sutcliffe A, Barnes J, Belsky J, Gardiner J, Melhuish E. The health and development of children born to older mothers in the United Kingdom: observational study using longitudinal cohort data. BMJ. 2012;345:e5116.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Trillingsgaard T, Sommer D. Associations between older maternal age, use of sanctions, and children’s socio-emotional development through 7, 11, and 15 years. Eur J Dev Psychol. 2016:1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Barclay K, Myrskylä M. Advanced maternal age and offspring outcomes: reproductive aging and counterbalancing period trends. Popul Dev Rev. 2016;42(1):69–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Pierce M, Hardy R. Commentary: The decreasing age of puberty—as much a psychosocial as biological problem? Int J Epidemiol. 2012;41(1):300–2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Eurostat. Mortality and life expectancy statistics. 2016. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Mortality_and_life_expectancy_statistics.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Daniela Cutas .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Cutas, D., Smajdor, A., Hens, K. (2018). Procreative Procrastination: The Ethics of Postponed Parenthood. In: Stoop, D. (eds) Preventing Age Related Fertility Loss. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14857-1_12

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14857-1_12

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-14856-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-14857-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics