Abstract
Given enough time all subsurface evaporites eventually dissolve. Even in the subsurface sedimentary realm there are probably more intervals of dissolution residues than there are beds of salts. The rate of evaporite dissolution changes with temperature and rate and volume of crossflowing undersaturated pore waters (Fig. 7.1) Solubility of the chloride salts consistently increases with increasing temperature (prograde solubility), with the sulphates and the sodium carbonates it initially increases, but can then decrease at higher temperatures (retrograde solubility) Dissolution typically begins in the shallow subsurface as the edges of salt beds that are flushed by meteoric or marine waters and continues deeper in the subsurface, wherever and whenever bed edges are flushed by undersaturated basinal brines. Partial dissolution, whereby crystals of more saline salts (typically halite and bitterns) are flushed, leaves behind residues of the less saline salts (typically gypsum-anhydrite, as in many caprocks).
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Notes
- 1.
The cluster of water-filled sinkholes atop dissolving evaporites and locally known as “Hell’s Kettles” (Lat 54.492655, Long −1.567459) located to the south of Darlington, UK, formed in 1179 AD via a catastrophic collapse of the landsurface. A twelfth century annalist describes their formation as follows:
“In the reign of Henry II, the earth rose high at Oxendale, in the District of Darlington, (Oxendale is now Oxney flat) in the likeness of a lofty tower, and so remained from nine in the morning until evening, when it sank don with a terrible noise, to the terror of all that heard it, and being swallowed up it left behind a deep pit.”
After the collapse the local clergy had a field-day; the “Hell’s Kettles” dolines have long been reputed to be bottomless pits, said to harbor the tortured souls of the sinful dead.
- 2.
The term subrosion refers to the burial-related dissolution of salt.
- 3.
Rockhead is the buried interface between the underlying bedrock and its soil cover.
- 4.
The Plains Indians that inhabited the area 300 years ago trapped and slaughtered thousands of buffalo as their primary food by stampeding the animals over the rim of a large steep-sided sinkhole near Sundance, Wyoming (the Vore Buffalo Jump; Fig. 7.16b).
The Mammoth Site in Hot Springs, South Dakota, is a salt dissolution sinkhole in the Spearfish Formation. There some 26,000 years ago, well before humans had migrated to north America, mammoths and other megafauna died after falling into what was then a steep sided water-filled sinkhole.
- 5.
The term boxwork is nongenetic, it describes an aggregate with plates or septa which intersect at various angles leaving open boxlike spaces, which may be subsequently infilled or cemented.
- 6.
Bathyphreatic is used to describe the hydrologic zone typified by deep, near-stagnant waters, situated at depths well below the zone of active phreatic circulation.
- 7.
Epikarst: pertains to the upper/outer layer of karstified rock in the unsaturated zone, immediately below the soil layer.
Exokarst: pertains to features found on a surface karst landscape, ranging in size from karren to dolines and subsidence bowls.
Endokarst: pertains to all features beneath the surface and hosted by a vertically layered karst system. It includes the full spectrum of underground voids and the dissolutional features present on the rock surfaces surrounding them. Klimchouk (2012) argues usage of the term endokarst should be expanded to include much hotter and deeper process sets that includes igneous and metamorphic fluids acting to create porosity at great depth.
- 8.
High levels of impurities meant Haselgebirge salt could not be exploited using conventional mining techniques. Instead the sinkwerk method was used. A sinkwerk is a chamber or sump in a salt mine filled with water to dissolve salt. The resulting brine is then pumped via pipelines to a saltworks for processing at the surface.
- 9.
The Catholic Church in the early Middle Ages of Europe explained such rapidly formed sinkholes as being “Gateways to Hell,” the result of the parishioners sinning a little to much, and/or not paying sufficient tithes to ameliorate the work of the Devil.
- 10.
Cave origin can be epigenic (by shallow circulation of meteoric groundwater) or hypogenic (by rising groundwater or production of deep-seated solutional aggressiveness). Epigenic mazes form by diffuse infiltration through a permeable insoluble caprock or by floodwater supplied by sinking streams. Most hypogenic caves involve deep sources of aggressive waters and are instigated at bathyphreatic depths (Palmer 2011).
- 11.
Entrenched karst occurs where the entire thickness of the soluble rock is entrenched along the sides of valleys but the insoluble cap spans most interfluves.
Subjacent karst occurs where the soluble rock is locally breached by erosion over a minor part of its thickness, karst features may be expressed at the surface as combinations of springs and collapse features. Mantled karst is wholly or partly covered by a relatively thin veneer of post-karst rock or sediment and is part of the contemporary landscape.
- 12.
A. H. Cooper in a lecture to the general public argued that collapse dolines breaching the landscape between Ripon and Darlington were the inspiration for the rabbit hole in Alice in Wonderland (see also < http://www.bgs.ac.uk/caves/alice_in_wonderland.html > last accessed Jan 5, 2015).
In Chap. 1, Lewis Carroll wrote:
“...The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel for some way, and then dipped suddenly down, so suddenly, that Alice had not a moment to think about stopping herself, before she found herself falling down what seemed a deep well. Either the well was very deep, or she fell very slowly, for she had plenty of time as she went down to look about her, and to wonder what would happen next...”
Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, who later adopted the Lewis Carroll pseudonym, was born in Cheshire and spent his early days at Croft, near Darlington. There, a trio of ponds called Hell’s Kettles were believed by locals in the Dark Ages to be bottomless links to hell. The pits are now known to be gypsum collapse features only 22 ft deep but they may have inspired this passage from the Carroll’s first chapter. In 1852 Carroll moved with his parents to Yorkshire when his father became Canon Dodgson of Ripon. Here, he first met Mary Badcock. Carroll, a keen mathematician, scientist and photographer, took pictures of Mary that were later adapted by Sir John Tenniel into illustrations in the first edition of Alice in Wonderland.
- 13.
On August 7, 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) movement captured the Mosul Dam complex from the Peshmerga. ISIL control of the dam created fears that its power supply could be restricted, or the water flows to downstream areas greatly inhibited. In a less likely scenario, there were worries the dam could be breached, causing widespread flooding and destruction downstream. On August 17, 2014, Peshmerga and the Iraqi Army launched a successful operation to retake control of the dam from ISIL militants. United States air strikes assisted the Kurdish and Iraqi military, damaging or destroying 19 vehicles belonging to ISIL, as well as a checkpoint near the dam.
Some estimates suggest that the dam would begin to crumble within weeks if grouting stopped, which explains why ISIL brought in their own engineers to keep the grouting process going. Any group trying to establish a new state needs control of water supplies and power-generation, so it was in the interests of ISIL to keep the dam intact. (It was not known at the time of recapture if they had planted explosive charges throughout the structure, just in case they needed a Doomsday option).
- 14.
Obruk is an internationally recognized Turkish geomorphic term, describing hypogenic collapse dolines, which crop out in the currently semiarid and almost flat land of Konya Closed Basin in central Turkey. These megadolines, with surface diameters and depths reaching several hundreds of meters, are still surfacing with an estimated temporal frequency of once per 5–10 years (Bayari et al. 2009).
- 15.
Translates as “Cave of the Lighted House.” The cave has at least 24 natural skylights, mostly vertical shafts and is lined with dissolution features such as natural bridges, boneyards, and rillenkarren walls.
- 16.
Quartzine is a form of chalcedony composed of fibres having a positive crystallographic elongation parallel to the c axis.
- 17.
Lutecite is a form of chalcedony characterised by fibres that are seemingly elongated about 30 °C to the c axis.
- 18.
Epithermal, said of a hydrothermal mineral deposit located within 1 km of the Earth’s surface and precipitated in a temperature range of 50–200 °C, mainly occurs in veins.
- 19.
In 1955 Magnet Cove Barium Corporation, a subsidiary of Dresser Industries Inc., Dallas, Texas, purchased the property from Canadian Industrial Minerals Limited. Diamond drilling in 1956–57 discovered a lead-zinc-copper-silver ore body below the baryte deposit and sulphide production began in 1961. In 1967 Magnet Cove Barium Corporation became Dresser Minerals, which operated the mine until it closed in 1978. The Walton Mine produced baryte for 38 years. Most of the baryte was shipped to United States and Caribbean destinations where it was used as a weighting agent in drilling fluids with smaller amounts shipped to the Middle East for the same purpose.
- 20.
Kroeger and Stinnesbeck (2003), established that the terms Minas Viejas and Olvido Fms. are synonyms for the same stratigraphic unit. Its outcrop distribution is now broken up by the effects of dissolution, tectonism and halokinesis, but originally it was deposited as single basinwide succession.
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Warren, J.K. (2016). Salt Dissolution and Pointers to Vanished Evaporites: Karst, Breccia, Nodules and Cement. In: Evaporites. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13512-0_7
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