Abstract
Many of the world’s larger oil and gas fields occur in halokinetically-influenced structures across many of the world’s salt basins (e.g. Campos Basin, Gulf of Mexico, North Sea, Lower Congo Basin, Santos Basin and Zagros). An understanding of the physics of salt and how salt flow influences tectonics and sedimentation is therefore critical to effective and efficient petroleum exploration (Chap. 10). And, I would argue, is also critical to a significant portion of the world’s base and precious metal occurrences (see Chaps. 15 and 16). Halokinetic salt is also a resource in salt, potash, gypsum and nitrate extraction (Chaps. 11 and 12). Salt dome salt has the potential to be employed as a repository for radioactive and other wastes, and can act as a highly efficient seal to sequestered CO2 (Chap. 13).
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Notes
- 1.
That rising salt can maintain units of highly soluble nearpure halite near the earth’s surface is why the richer sites of Neolithic salt exploitation in Europe were inland and centred on mines at Cardona and Hallestat, and in the fourth Century BC at Zanjan in Iran, as opposed to sites of seasonal evaporation along the coastal plain. Some diapiric salt masses have superstitious significance (Genesis 19:26); Lot’s wife was noted in the journals of Fulcher of Chartres (Chaplain to King Baldwin) who accompanied the crusader Baldwin I across the Dead Sea valley in December 1100 AD. In reality, the apophenic feature described as Lot’s wife is a 12 m-high column of salt lying at the foot of the much larger Mt Sedom (Usdum) on the edge of the Dead Sea. It is one of a number of dissolutional remnants along the gypsum-capped cavernous edge of an outcropping diapir composed of Miocene salt, which also makes up Mount Sedom (Frumkin 2009). But Sedom’s description as a mountain is somewhat of a misnomer, it is certainly 8 km across, but only rises a 100 m or so above the floor of the Dead Sea Valley.
- 2.
Newtonian (or viscous) flow occurs when the rate of shear stress is directly proportional to the shear strain (linear relation between stress and strain rate). Non-Newtonian flow is typified by a power law relationship between stress and strain.
- 3.
Diffusion creep changes the shape and size of crystals through the movement of vacancies and atoms within crystals and along grain boundaries. Indicative textures can include equant grain shapes, indented grains, overgrowths and a lack of crystallographic preferred orientation (although preferred crystallographic orientations can also form during diffusion creep)
- 4.
Brittle response encapsulate microfracturing, cataclasis, and frictional sliding involve the formation, lengthening, and interconnecting of microcracks; frictional sliding along microcracks and grain boundaries; and the formation and flow of pervasively fractured, brecciated, and pulverized rock and crystal fragments (micropemeability).
- 5.
Confining pressure describes an equal, all-sided pressure, such as lithostatic pressure produced by the weight of overlying rocks in the crust of the earth. It is considered equivalent to overburden pressure or geostatic pressure and is sometimes called vertical stress. It contrasts with the term formation pressure, which includes a pore pressure component.
- 6.
Differential stress (sometimes called deviatoric stress) is any stress system where the forces acting on a unit cube are not the same in all directions, it is typically measured as σ1–σ3.
- 7.
Homologous temperature scales (TH) make it possible to compare creep response for solids with different melting points. TH is defined as T/Tm, which is the ratio of the material’s temperature to its melting point (Tm). For water, with a Tm of 273 K, the homologous temperature at 0 K is 0/273 = 0, while at 0 °C the TH = 1 (273/273), and 0.5 at −100 °C (137/273).
Homologous temperatures involved in creep processes are typically greater than 0.5, with creep processes becoming more active as TH approaches 1. This is why ice glaciers can flow like salt glaciers: that is, ice deforms by creep at the high homologous temperatures of natural glaciers, as does salt, as illustrated in Fig. 6.4b.
- 8.
Effective stress is equal to the total stress minus the pore pressure.
- 9.
Curtain folds are cylindrical fold having roughly radial axial trace and steeply plunging hinge within a diapir, possibly incorporating sheath folds originally formed in the source layer (Fig. 6.14c).
- 10.
The process of downbuilding describes the situation where the rise of the salt relative to the source salt layer occurs coevally with further overburden deposition and loading, so the distance increases between the source layer and the surface of the basin, while the crest of the salt structure maintains the same position in earth space.
Its corollary is upbuilding, this describes the situation where salt rises after the overlying strata have already been deposited, thus the rising salt will warp and eventually break through overlying strata. The crest of the structure changes its position in earth-space as it grows.
- 11.
Thin-skin tectonics describes a situation where most of the deformation occurs in sediments above a regional décollement and structures in the basement below the décollement are different to those above. Sometimes called a “no basement” structural interpretation. Its corollary is “thick-skinned” tectonics, which involves related deformation of both basement and salt cover.
- 12.
The term gumbo is used mostly by Gulf of Mexico drillers to describe the appearance of the large, pliable sticky and clumped cuttings that come up in the mud returns, whenever these basal salt transition zones are intersected. Gumbo is actually a thick seafood-based soup or stock that originated in the eighteenth century in the Creole region of southern Louisiana and is still a very popular dish in the southeast of the USA.
- 13.
In salt tectonics, a drape fold describes a zone of upturned strata adjacent to a diapir. Upturning results from arching of the diapir roof above flanking strata and is an important process in the formation of halokinetic sequences and is also known as a flap fold.
- 14.
Repeated extrusions can create stacked salt wings, so forming a serrated salt contact known as a Christmas-tree structure. Some can also form via fault rotation, not stacking of successive extrusive salt wings and tongues.
- 15.
The detachment surface for these into-the-basin “Roho” growth-faults is inefficiently evacuated salt. With 1960s and 1970s vintage seismic data, it was not possible to image below the salt evacuation surface (tertiary weld). An early seismic stratigrapher in Shell, Chuck Roripaugh, after being instructed to map to the Moho below areas of salt, jokingly labelled his map of the salt evacuation as “Roripaugh’s Moho” which was later contracted to Roho. This in-house joke has since escaped into the public literature.
- 16.
Distinction between near-field and far-field is typically assumed, rather than defined. Far-field typically refers to continent-scale influences (e.g., continent-continent collision), while near-field refers to more local-scale stresses such as those involved in gravity gliding.
- 17.
Backthrust describes a thrust fault that dips opposite to the general dip of thrust faults in a thrust belt and results in displacement toward the hinterland of the belt.
- 18.
The Potwar Basin is one of the world’s oldest oil provinces. The first commercial discovery was made in 1914 at Khaur. Eastern Potwar region is an important oil- and gas-producing area. Discoveries in the eastern part of the Potwar Plateau, located southeast of the Soan syncline, are mostly from NE-SW elongated anticlines.
- 19.
Footwall shortcut thrusts: A low angle thrust fault developed in the footwall of a steep thrust fault. The resultant lower angle fault trajectory is kinematically and mechanically more feasible for large displacement than the high angle fault trajectory (McClay 1992)
- 20.
Hook folds are defined by basal sequence boundaries that curve sharply upward within 50–200 m of the diapir contact and is truncated at up to 90° by an overlying unconformity marking the base of the next younger sequence (Fig. 6.107). Mass-wasting deposits are common at the base of the sequence, and facies change abruptly near the diapir. In contrast a wedge halokinetic sequence gradually taper toward the diapir and typically terminate against a truncating younger halokinetic sequence. The zone of drape folding is 300–1,000 m wide, angular truncation is typically less than 30°, mass-wasting deposits are less common than in hook halokinetic sequences.
- 21.
The early oil history of Gulf Coast, USA, has an interesting aside. Oldtime drillers found that drilling wells in graveyards led to a significant number of successes. High success rates associated with “graveyard-tology” meant that early last century the church elders and many still-living relatives developed a sudden if somewhat belated attachment to long-since-departed great aunt Maude. Bitter legal battles, fraught with claims along the lines of being the bastard child of aunt Maude, were fought over the percentage of royalties that one would receive for part of, or even a distant ownership of, a small piece of “Boot Hill.” A reason exists for these early success rates. Many early east Texas fields were salt-structure associated, with the shallow reservoirs (vuggy and fractured caprock) lying directly over the crest of the structure. The surface expression of an underlying salt structure in the Texas Gulf coast is a small topographic high or hill, and since John Wayne was a whippersnapper, graveyards have been “up on Boot Hill.” The first oil discovered in southern Louisiana in 1901 came from a similar salt-formed topographic feature known as Jennings Hill about 100 km west of Baton Rouge.
- 22.
The Spindletop discovery well blew out at a depth of 311 m (1,020 ft) and in 8 days it is estimated some 800,000 bbls of pressurized oil had escaped from the well.
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Warren, J.K. (2016). Flowing Salt: Halokinesis. In: Evaporites. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13512-0_6
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Print ISBN: 978-3-319-13511-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-13512-0
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)