Abstract
Evaporite salts can survive well into the metamorphic realm, but are altered, recrystallised or transformed into new minerals. And so, beyond the early greenschist phase, little or nothing of the original sedimentary mineral phase remains with the possible exception of anhydrite (Table 14.1; Spear 1993). Consider “the before and after” situation as a sequence of evaporite-entraining sediments passes into the metamorphic realm. Under a likely “before” regional metamorphism scenario, a typical buried marine evaporite body occupies a continental margin position, is hundreds of metres thick, tens to hundreds of kilometres wide, perhaps with halokinetic geometries and an extensively tilted and faulted overburden. Halite typically makes up more than 60–80 % of the total rock salt volume in a basinwide unit. This halite is likely to be interlayered with anhydrite, bitterns, magnesian carbonates and siliciclastic clays. “After” metamorphism, typically driven by subduction and continent-continent collision, the end product of this once dominantly NaCl body of rock is a series of sodic and magnesian aluminosilicates, magnesites, calc-silicates and marbles with local zones of potassic enrichment. The immediate question is, where did all that salt and the associated volatiles (Cl, CO2, SO3) go?
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- 1.
Pressure units: 1 bar = 100 kPa = 0.987 atmospheres and 1 kilobar = 1,000 bars = 100 MPa
- 2.
The illite lattice is structurally very similar to muscovite and it tends to transform to muscovite with increasing metamorphic grade. The Illite crystallinity or Kübler index is experimentally determined by measuring the full width at half maximum for the X-ray diffraction reflection peak along the (001) crystallographic axis of the illite sample. This value is an indirect measurement of the thickness of illite/muscovite packets, which denote change in metamorphic grade.
- 3.
Metamorphism and metasomatism both involve the re-equilibration of mineral assemblages due to changes in pressure, temperature and/or chemical environment. Both processes involve material transport but on different length scales, so every metamorphic reaction is metasomatic on a local scale. Fluids provide a transport mechanism which is orders of magnitude faster than solid state diffusion and induce re-equilibration through dissolution of parent phases and reprecipitation of products (Putnis and Austrheim 2010).
- 4.
Phlogopite is a yellow, greenish, or reddish-brown member of the mica family of phyllosilicates that is also known as magnesium mica.
- 5.
Gedrite is a silicate mineral of the amphibole group with formula: (Mg;Fe2+)2[(Mg;Fe2+)3Al2](Si6Al2)O22(OH)2
- 6.
Itabirite, is a banded-quartz hematite and hematite schist, constituting a laminated, metamorphosed oxide-facies iron formation in which the original chert or jasper bands have been recrystallized into layers made up of distinct crystals of quartz and the iron is present as thin layers of hematite, magnetite, or martite.
- 7.
The Ancient Greeks, distinguished between precious and semi-precious stones; similar distinctions were made in other ancient cultures. In modern usage, the precious stones are diamond, ruby, sapphire and emerald, with all other gemstones being semi-precious.
- 8.
Chromophore; is the part of a gem lattice responsible for its colour. A gem’s colour arises when a molecule absorbs certain wavelengths of visible light and transmits or reflects others. It is a structural feature in the lattice indicative of the presence of a gem-specific electron configuration of the ions in its crystal lattice; such as transition metal ions (Cr, V or Fe) occupying several different coordination sites. For example, ferrous iron (Fe2+) or ferric iron (Fe3+), the ferrous ion in peridot causes the green colour and ferric ion causes the yellow colour in chrysoberyl. This colour effect has important uses in heat-treatment gemstones such as blue colour in heat-treated sapphire.
- 9.
Lapis is the Latin word for “stone” and lazuli is the genitive form of the Medieval Latin lazulum meaning blue, which was taken originally from the Persian lāžaward, the name of a place where lapis lazuli was mined. Taken as a whole, lapis lazuli originally meant “stone of Lāzhward.” With time, the name of the place came to be associated with the stone mined there and, eventually, with its bright blue colour. Lapis lazuli’s use as jewellery can be traced back to the 5th millennium B.C.E. with the discovery of beads at a cemetery outside the temple walls of Eridu (Sumer) in southern Babylonia (Von Rosen 1990). To the ancient Egyptians, it was considered a gem representing the skies or heaven, thus was thought to denote light, truth and wisdom. It was thus often shaped into eye-shaped gems and was worn by judges in ancient Egypt. A lapis amulet graced the brow of Ra. Lapis is noted in Revelations in Christian mythology as a stone in the Breastplate of Aaron. In China, lapis was worn during the Manchu dynasty for services in the Temple of Heaven. The Romans and Greeks used it as a cure for fever and melancholy.
The Sar-e-Sang region has supplied much of the gem quality lapis to the world. One of the first European explorers to the region (Wood 1841) described mining methods in use at that time. Camel-thorn and tamarisk twigs were collected from the valley below and carried up the steep path to the mine. When sufficient fuel had been collected, it was piled against the rock face and a fire was lit. When the rock was hot, cold water, which also had to be carried up the steep 350 m ascent from the valley floor, was thrown onto it. The rock cracked and split, enabling further work to be done with the primitive tools available (pick, hammer and chisel) in order to extract the lapis lazuli from its marble host rock.
- 10.
Emerald is a brilliant, grass-green variety of beryl [Be3(Al,Cr)2Si6O18], highly favoured as a gemstone. Green colour is caused by trace of chromium (Cr3+) and vanadium (V3+) ions.
- 11.
Chromium is the chromophore in both ruby and (most) emerald. In ruby, the details of the atomic environment and local charges around the chromium ion result in a strong interaction, equivalent to a small “cage” around the ion. This induces light absorption at high energy, and hence most of the transmission is at low energy, in the red part of the visible spectrum. The opposite occurs in emerald, in which the local environment is more relaxed, resulting in a looser “cage” around the chromium ion. The absorption is at lower energies, which results in the well-known emerald-green colour (Groat and Laurs 2009).
- 12.
Tsavorite (also spelled tsavolite, and tsavolithe) is a transparent, bright green to emerald green variety of grossular garnet Ca3Al2(SiO4)3 coloured by chromium and vanadium. RI: 1.734–1.744. SG: 3.68. H: 6½–7. Originally discovered in 1967 by British-born gemmologist Campbell Bridges and described from the Tsavo National Game Park in Kenya, from which it took its name, this green vanadium-bearing (goldmanite-component) grossular garnet, with minor chromium, is more prevalent in Tanzania, with current production from Tunduru, Ruangwa, Umba, Merelani Hills and Komolo, which has outstripped production from Kenya. Also found at Gogogogo, Madagascar, and in the Swat region, Pakistan. In 2009, Campbell Bridges was ambushed and killed by a Kenyan mob, who were illegally mining the gem on his property.
- 13.
Tanzanite; a commercial term for cut zoisite; transparent blue to violet gem, pleochroic variety of zoisite, which exhibits strongly trichroic properties in deep blue, deep red, and greenish yellow. Optics; α:1.692, β:1.693, γ:1.700. Birefringence: 0.009. Dispersion: 0.019. SG;3.38. H;6–7. Currently, high quality gem forms are considered to be a thousand times rarer than diamond, but its relative softness keeps the price (hundreds to thousands of dollars per carat) far below that of fine diamond. Tiffany & Co. coined the name tanzanite for blue zoisite as they considered the term “zoisite” sounded too much like “suicide.”
- 14.
Celsian is an uncommon feldspar mineral, a barium aluminosilicate, BaAl2Si2O8 . It is a metamorphic mineral that may indicate an exhalative hydrothermal precursor.
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Warren, J.K. (2016). Meta-evaporites. In: Evaporites. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13512-0_14
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