Abstract
This paper presents the next steps forward for a large-scale deployment of public charging infrastructure after the first round of infrastructure was mainly financed by government agencies over the last 3–5 years. In order to create a sustainable and market-driven public charging network, governments are increasingly looking for strategies to support the next generation of public charging infrastructure with creative financing mechanisms and limited public funding. The primary goal is to review and analyze the different models that are currently being tested in early adopter markets such as Norway, the Netherlands, California, and United States. Based on this early learning, identify possible business models for large-scale deployment of public charging infrastructure. This paper describes the challenges and opportunities in these early markets, identify six different (international) models for investing into public charging infrastructure and describe their individual advantages and disadvantages. By applying these models to California, a state that is actively involved in public policy development and introduction of electric vehicles, this paper identifies preferred financing models applying three different scenarios. The research provides insights into international comparison of deployment of public charging infrastructure and possible financial models. Based on a case study, the various advantages and disadvantages of these models are exemplified. Finally, suggestions are made for further research and modeling.
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Notes
- 1.
In addition to the term “PEV’s,” also terms like BEV’s (battery electric vehicles) and PHEV’s (plug-in hybrid) electric vehicles are often times used. However, PEV’s includes them both: BEV’s representing EV’s with only batteries to propel the vehicle and PHEV representing EV’s that also have a small combustion engine to support/charge the battery. This uses the term PEV’s.
- 2.
PEV sales share is the percentage of PEV’s sold relative to all cars sold over a given period of time. The ambition for some of the leading states such as California, Norway, and the Netherlands is to reach 10–25 % over the next decade.
- 3.
PEV’s include here both BEV’s and PHEV’s.
- 4.
Best-selling car in Europe since many years.
- 5.
No studies were found yet to suggest that extended range for PEV’s like the Tesla Model S has changes charging behavior. This would however be another option to deal with the number of EVSE’s needed.
- 6.
Type 1 or 2 or SLOW CHARGING is the most common type of charging used which provides alternating current to the vehicle’s battery from an external charger. Charging times can range from 4 to 12 h for a full charge. Type 3 or FAST CHARGING, or also known as “DC quick charging,” provide a direct current of electricity to the vehicle’s battery from an external charger. Charging times can range from 0.5 to 2 h for a full charge.
- 7.
“Interoperability” stands for the ability of PEV drivers to charge their vehicle at any given charger independent from the subscription that they may have as well as for an open standard between charge station and network back office. Both allow for easy user access and fair market competition.
- 8.
At least 100 million dollars per year have been made available through CEC grants (California Energy Commission).
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Acknowledgments
The authors like to thank the various regional, state and national governments, academic institutions, and private organizations for providing information, discussion, and input. Although many have contributed, the efforts by the Governor’s Office and the Office of Planning and Research (State of California), the PowerTeam of Ministry of Economic Affairs (The Netherlands), UCDavis/Institute of Transportation Studies, Plug-in Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Research Center (California), MRA-e (The Netherlands), and NSR e-Mobility Team of The Province of Noord-Holland (The Netherlands), are especially appreciated.
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van Deventer, P., van der Steen, M., van Schelven, R., Rubin, B., Kotter, R. (2015). Large-Scale Deployment of Public Charging Infrastructure: Identifying Possible Next Steps Forward. In: Leal Filho, W., Kotter, R. (eds) E-Mobility in Europe. Green Energy and Technology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13194-8_6
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