Abstract
The posterior ciliary arteries (PCAs) supply the choroid and the optic nerve head. As discussed in Chap. 4, information on the vascular pattern of the choroid and of the PCAs was previously drawn entirely from postmortem cast studies, ever since the first description by Frederik Ruysch [1] in 1700. Extensive anatomical studies of the choroidal vascular bed have been conducted, mostly by studying casts prepared by the postmortem injection of a variety of materials [2–8] and also by studying casts by scanning electron microscopy [9–12]. These studies formed the basis of the classical anatomical textbook description of the choroidal vasculature. According to most of these descriptions: (1) PCAs have no segmental distribution, (2) they anastomose freely with one another as well as with the anterior ciliary arteries, (3) there are inter-arterial and arteriovenous anastomoses in the choroid, and (4) the choriocapillaris forms a freely communicating and an uninterrupted vascular bed in the entire choroid [8, 11]. From these postmortem anatomical descriptions, it was generally concluded that occlusion of PCA or one of its branches should not produce an ischemic lesion.
Keywords
- Retinal Pigment Epithelium
- Giant Cell Arteritis
- Outer Nuclear Layer
- Serous Retinal Detachment
- Macular Region
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Wedel C, Ruysch F. Epistola anatomica, problematica ad Fredericum Ruyschium. De oculorum tunicis. Amstelaedami: Janssonio-Waesbergios; 1737.
Ashton N. Observations on the choroidal circulation. Br J Ophthalmol. 1952;36:465–81.
Ring HG, Fujino T. Observations on the anatomy and pathology of the choroidal vasculature. Arch Ophthalmol. 1967;78:431–44.
Ruskell GL. Choroidal vascularization in the rabbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1961;52:807–15.
Vilstrup G. Studies on the choroid circulation. Thesis (doctoral). Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard; 1952.
Weiter JJ, Ernest JT. Anatomy of the choroidal vasculature. Am J Ophthalmol. 1974;78:583–90.
Wybar KC. A study of the choroidal circulation of the eye in man. J Anat. 1954;88:94–8.
Wybar KC. Vascular anatomy of the choroid in relation to selective localization of ocular disease. Br J Ophthalmol. 1954;38:513–7.
Matsuo N. Studies on choroidal circulation. Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1980;84:2147–206.
Shimizu K. Segmental nature of angioarchitecture of the choroid. In: Shimizu K, Oosterhuis JA, editors. Acta XXIII Concilium Ophthalmologicum, Kyoto, 1978. Part 1. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1979. p. 215–9.
Shimizu K, Ujiie K. Structure of ocular vessels. New York: Igaku-Shoin; 1978. p. 54, 70–9, 108–24.
Uyama M, Ohkuma H, Itotagawa S, Koshibu A, Uraguchi K, Miki K. Pathology of choroidal circulatory disturbance. Part 1. Angioarchitecture of the choroid, observation on plastic cast preparation (author’s transl). Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1980;84:1893–909.
Hayreh SS, Baines JA. Occlusion of the posterior ciliary artery. I. Effects on choroidal circulation. Br J Ophthalmol. 1972;56:719–35.
Hayreh SS, Baines JA. Occlusion of the posterior ciliary artery. II. Chorio-retinal lesions. Br J Ophthalmol. 1972;56:736–53.
Hayreh SS, Baines JA. Occlusion of the posterior ciliary artery. III. Effects on the optic nerve head. Br J Ophthalmol. 1972;56:754–64.
Hayreh SS, Chopdar A. Occlusion of the posterior ciliary artery. V. Protective influence of simultaneous vortex vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1982;100:1481–91.
Loeffler KU, Hayreh SS, Tso MOM. The effects of simultaneous occlusion of the posterior ciliary artery and vortex veins: a histopathologic study. Arch Ophthalmol. 1994;112:674–82.
Hayreh SS. Submacular choroidal vascular pattern. Experimental fluorescein fundus angiographic studies. Albrecht von Graefes Arch Klin Exp Ophthalmol. 1974;192:181–96.
Hayreh SS. The long posterior ciliary arteries. An experimental study. Albrecht von Graefes Arch Klin Exp Ophthalmol. 1974;192:197–213.
Uyama M, Ohkuma H, Miki K, Koshibu A, Uraguchi K, Itotagawa S. Pathology of choroidal circulatory disturbance. Part 3. Experimental choroidal circulatory disturbance, histopathological study of retino-choroidal lesion (author’s transl). Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1980;84:1924–46.
Koshibu A, Itotagawa S. Disruption and repair of blood-retinal barrier at the retinal pigment epithelium after experimentally produced choroidal circulatory disturbance (author’s transl). Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1980;84:721–35.
Wagenmann A. Experimental Investigation of the influence of the circulation within the retina and choroid for the nourishment of the eye, especially the retina, and about the consequences of optic nerve transection. Albrecht von Graefes Arch Ophthalmol. 1890;36:1–120.
Krückmann E. Anatomy of the retinal pigment epithelium. Albrecht von Graefes Arch Ophthalmol. 1899;47:644–61.
Capauner. Zustandekommen der Netzhautpigmentirung. Bericht Ophthalmologische Gesellschaft. 1893;23:45–75.
Nicholls JV. The effect of section of the posterior ciliary arteries in the rabbit. Br J Ophthalmol. 1938;22:672–87.
Algvere P. Retinal detachment and pathology following experimental embolization of choroidal and retinal circulation. Albrecht von Graefes Arch Klin Exp Ophthalmol. 1976;201:123–34.
Ota M, Harayama K, Uyama M. Angiographic study of experimental occlusion of posterior ciliary arteries (author’s transl). Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1976;80:531–9.
Ueno S, Tsukahara I. Ultrastructural observations of the retinal pigment epithelial cells following experimental occlusion of the posterior ciliary artery in the rhesus monkey. I. Early changes of the damaged retinal pigment epithelial cells. Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1976;80:572–84.
Ota M, Harayama K, Tsukahara I. Angiographic study of experimental occlusion of posterior ciliary arteries and pial vessels (author’s transl). Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1977;81:292–8.
Ueno S, Harayama K, Tsukahara I. Ultrastructural observations of the retinal pigment epithelial cells following experimental occlusion of the posterior ciliary artery in the rhesus monkey. II. Mid-phase changes of the damaged retinal pigment epithelial cells. Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1977;81:728–42.
Ueno S, Ohta M, Tsukahara I. Ultrastructural observations of the retinal pigment epithelial cells following experimental occlusion of the posterior ciliary artery in the rhesus monkey. III. Late changes of the damaged retinal pigment epithelial cells. Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1977;81:1801–13.
Itotagawa S. Observation on the choroidal vasculature. Part 3. Recovery of blood flow in choroidal circulation after experimental occlusion of the posterior ciliary arteries (author’s transl). Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1979;83:2132–41.
Matsunaga H, Andoh A, Matsubara T, Fukushima I, Takahashi K, Ohkuma H, et al. Indocyanine green infrared fluorescence angiography and vascular cast–preparation in experimental choroidal circulatory disturbance. Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1996;100:201–7.
Matsunaga H, Andou A, Matsubara T, Fukushima I, Takahashi K, Ohkuma H, et al. Indocyanine green infrared fluorescence angiography and histopathological correlation in experimental choroidal circulatory disturbance. Report 1. Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1997;101:12–8.
Matsunaga H, Ando A, Matsubara T, Fukushima I, Takahashi K, Ohkuma H, et al. Indocyanine green infrared fluorescence angiography and histopathological correlation in experimental choroidal circulatory disturbance. Report 2. Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1997;101:127–33.
Cogan DG. Neurology of the visual system. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas; 1966. p. 137, 173, 185–8.
Henkind P, Charles NC, Pearson J. Histopathology of ischemic optic neuropathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1970;69:78–90.
MacMichael IM, Cullen JF. Pathology of ischaemic optic neuropathy. In: Cant JS, editor. Proceedings, 2nd William Mackenzie Symposium on the optic nerve. London: Kimpton; 1972. p. 108–16.
Hinzpeter EN, Naumann G. Ischemic papilledema in giant-cell arteritis. Mucopolysaccharide deposition with normal intraocular pressure. Arch Ophthalmol. 1976;94:624–8.
Anderson DR, Davis EB. Retina and optic nerve after posterior ciliary artery occlusion. An experimental study in squirrel monkeys. Arch Ophthalmol. 1974;92:422–6.
McLeod D, Marshall J, Kohner EM. Role of axoplasmic transport in the pathophysiology of ischaemic disc swelling. Br J Ophthalmol. 1980;64:247–61.
Radius RL. Optic nerve fast axonal transport abnormalities in primates. Occurrence after short posterior ciliary artery occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1980;98:2018–22.
Ellenberger Jr C. Ischemic optic neuropathy as a possible early complication of vascular hypertension. Am J Ophthalmol. 1979;88:1045–51.
Hayreh SS. Anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy. I Terminology and pathogenesis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1974;58:955–63.
Hayreh SS. Segmental nature of the choroidal vasculature. Br J Ophthalmol. 1975;59:631–48.
Simoens P. In vivo and in vitro study of experimental occlusion of choroidal and retinal blood vessels in the miniature pig. Verh K Acad Geneeskd Belg. 1993;55:319–75.
Meadows SP. Temporal arteritis and the loss of vision. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1954;74:13–24.
Rödenhauser JH. On pathologic-anatomical eye changes in generalized giant cell arteritis. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1964;145:414–29.
Crompton MR. The visual changes in temporal (giant-cell) arteritis. Report of a case with autopsy findings. Brain. 1959;82:377–90.
Cooke WT, Cloake PCP, Govan ADT, Colbeck JC. Temporal arteritis: a generalized vascular disease. Q J Med. 1946;15:47–75.
Cardell BS, Hanley T. A fatal case of giant-cell or temporal arteritis. J Pathol Bacteriol. 1951;63:587–97.
Greenfield JG. A case of giant-celled arteritis. Proc R Soc Med. 1951;44:855–7.
Kreibig W. Opticomalacia caused by vascular occlusion in the retrobulbar portion of optic nerves. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd Augenarztl Fortbild. 1953;122:719–31.
Heptinstall RH, Porter KA, Barkley H. Giant-cell (temporal) arteritis. J Pathol Bacteriol. 1954;67:507–19.
Spencer WH, Hoyt WF. A fatal case of giant-cell arteritis (Temporal or cranial arteritis) with ocular involvement. Arch Ophthalmol. 1960;64:862–7.
Seitz R. On the pathogenesis of occlusion of the retinal arteries. Ber Zusammenkunft Dtsch Ophthalmol Ges. 1961;64:321–7.
Cullen JF. Occult temporal arteritis. Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK. 1963;83:725–36.
Manschot WA. A fatal case of temporal arteritis with ocular symptoms. Ophthalmologica. 1965;149:121–30.
Wolter JR, Phillips RL. Secondary glaucoma in cranial arteritis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1965;59:625–34.
MacFaul PA. Ciliary artery involvement in giant cell arteritis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1967;51:505–12.
Knox DL, Duke JR. Slowly progressive ischemic optic neuropathy. A clinicopathologic case report. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1971;75:1065–8.
Hayreh SS. Anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy. II. Fundus on ophthalmoscopy and fluorescein angiography. Br J Ophthalmol. 1974;58:964–80.
Hayreh SS. Ischemic optic neuropathy. Int Ophthalmol. 1978;1:9–18.
Hayreh SS. Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Arch Neurol. 1981;38:675–8.
Hayreh SS. Inter-individual variation in blood supply of the optic nerve head. Its importance in various ischemic disorders of the optic nerve head, and glaucoma, low-tension glaucoma and allied disorders. Doc Ophthalmol. 1985;59:217–46.
Hayreh SS. Anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy. Differentiation of arteritic from non-arteritic type and its management. Eye (Lond). 1990;4(Pt 1):25–41.
Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Zimmerman B. Ocular manifestations of giant cell arteritis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;125:509–20.
Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Zimmerman B. Occult giant cell arteritis: ocular manifestations. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;125:521–6, 893.
Hayreh SS. Ischemic optic neuropathy. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2009;28:34–62.
Hayreh SS. Ischemic optic neuropathies. Heidelberg: Springer; 2011.
Hayreh SS, Servais GE, Virdi PS. Fundus lesions in malignant hypertension. VI Hypertensive choroidopathy. Ophthalmology. 1986;93:1383–400.
Kishi S, Tso MO, Hayreh SS. Fundus lesions in malignant hypertension I. A pathologic study of experimental hypertensive choroidopathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1985;103:1189–97.
Amalric P. Acute choroidal ischaemia. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1971;91:305–22.
Fastenberg DM, Fetkenhour CL, Choromokos E, Shoch DE. Choroidal vascular changes in toxemia of pregnancy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1980;89:362–8.
Raymond LA, Sacks JG, Choromokos E, Khodadad G. Short posterior ciliary artery insufficiency with hyperthermia (Uhthoff’s symptom). Am J Ophthalmol. 1980;90:619–23.
Mames RN, Snady-McCoy L, Guy J. Central retinal and posterior ciliary artery occlusion after particle embolization of the external carotid artery system. Ophthalmology. 1991;98:527–31.
Sribhargava N, Harsha K, Prasad S, Shetty BK. Amalric sign and central retinal artery with lateral posterior ciliary artery occlusion. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2009;57:403–4.
Bullock JD, Jampol LM, Fezza AJ. Two cases of orbital phycomycosis with recovery. Am J Ophthalmol. 1974;78:811–5.
Jampol LM, Lahov M, Albert DM, Craft J. Ocular clinical findings and basement membrane changes in Goodpasture’s syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1975;79:452–63.
Harrison SM, Frenkel M, Grossman BJ, Matalon R. Retinopathy in childhood dermatomyositis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1973;76:786–90.
Dizon RV, Jampol LM, Goldberg MF, Juarez C. Choroidal occlusive disease in sickle cell hemoglobinopathies. Surv Ophthalmol. 1979;23:297–306.
Cogan DG. Ocular involvement in disseminated intravascular coagulopathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1975;93:1–8.
Makino S, Takezawa M, Sato Y. A case of incomplete central retinal artery occlusion associated with short posterior ciliary artery occlusion. Case Reports in Ophthalmological Medicine [Internet]. 2013; doi:10.1155/2013/105653. [4 p.]. Available from: http://www.hindawi.com/journals/criopm/2013/105653/.
Matsuo T, Fujiwara H, Gobara H, Mimura H, Kanazawa S. Central retinal and posterior ciliary artery occlusion after intralesional injection of sclerosant to glabellar subcutaneous hemangioma. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2009;32:341–6.
Park SH, Sun HJ, Choi KS. Sudden unilateral visual loss after autologous fat injection into the nasolabial fold. Clin Ophthalmol. 2008;2:679–83.
Shin H, Lemke BN, Stevens TS, Lim MJ. Posterior ciliary-artery occlusion after subcutaneous silicone-oil injection. Ann Ophthalmol. 1988;20:342–4.
Lemaitre-Labilloy C, Bodaghi B, Cassoux N, Lehoang P. Acute choroidal closure caused by hemodialysis accident in an amyloidosic patient. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2006;244:758–60.
Jampol LM, Goldbaum M, Rosenberg M, Bahr R. Ischemia of ciliary arterial circulation from ocular compression. Arch Ophthalmol. 1975;93:1311–7.
Carr RE, Siegel IM. Unilateral retinitis pigmentosa. Arch Ophthalmol. 1973;90:21–6.
Goldbaum MH, Galinos SO, Apple D, Asdourian GK, Nagpal K, Jampol L, et al. Acute choroidal ischemia as a complication of photocoagulation. Arch Ophthalmol. 1976;94:1025–35.
Bacin F, Menerath JM. Posterior ciliary artery occlusion after krypton photocoagulation of subretinal neovessels. Bull Soc Ophtalmol Fr. 1988;88:647–9.
Brancato R, Menchini U, Pece A, Bandello F. Occlusion of the posterior ciliary arteries after surgery for retinal detachment. Bull Mem Soc Fr Ophtalmol. 1985;96:258–60.
Chiquet C, Germain P, Burillon C, Coudry-Vergne D, Perez M, Paupert-Ravault M, et al. Multifocal choroiditis associated with herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Apropos of a case. J Fr Ophtalmol. 1996;19:712–5.
Luo QL, Orcutt JC, Seifter LS. Orbital mucormycosis with retinal and ciliary artery occlusions. Br J Ophthalmol. 1989;73:680–3.
Iida T, Spaide RF, Kantor J. Retinal and choroidal arterial occlusion in Wegener’s granulomatosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;133:151–2.
Bird AC, Anderson J, Fuglsang H. Morphology of posterior segment lesions of the eye in patients with onchocerciasis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1976;60:2–20.
Diamond JG, Kaplan HJ. Uveitis: effect of vitrectomy combined with lensectomy. Ophthalmology. 1979;86:1320–9.
Rosenblum PD, Michels RG, Stark WJ, Taylor HR. Choroidal ischemia after extracapsular cataract extraction by phacoemulsification. Retina. 1981;1:263–70.
Hayreh SS. Choroidal ischemia after extra capsular cataract extraction by phacoemulsification. Retina. 1982;2:191–3.
Rodriguez A, Rodriguez FJ, Betancourt F. Presumed occlusion of posterior ciliary arteries following central retinal vein decompression surgery. Arch Ophthalmol. 1994;112:54–6.
Hayreh SS. Choroidal arterial occlusive disorders. Doc Ophthal Proc Sem. 1976;9:211–27.
Hayreh SS. Acute occlusive disorders of the choroidal vasculature. Int Ophthalmol. 1983;6:139–48.
Hepburn ML. Inflammatory and vascular diseases of the choroid. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1912;32:361–86.
Hepburn ML. The Doyne Memorial Lencture: the role played by the pigment and visual fields in the diagnosis of diseases of the fundus. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1935;55:434–77.
Foulds WS, Lee WR, Taylor WO. Clinical and pathological aspects of choroidal ischaemia. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1971;91:323–41.
Hayreh SS. The choriocapillaris. Albrecht von Graefes Arch Klin Exp Ophthalmol. 1974;192:165–79.
Klien BA. Ischemic infarcts of the choroid (Elschinig spots). A cause of retinal separation in hypertensive disease with renal insufficiency. A clinical and histopathologic study. Am J Ophthalmol. 1968;66:1069–74.
Stern WH, Ernest JT. Microsphere occlusion of the choriocapillaris in rhesus monkeys. Am J Ophthalmol. 1974;78:438–48.
Gass JD. Acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1968;80:177–85.
Deutman AF, Lion F. Choriocapillaris nonperfusion in acute multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1977;84:652–7.
Deutman AF. Acute multifocal ischaemic choroidopathy and the choriocapillaris. Int Ophthalmol. 1983;6:155–60.
Young NJ, Bird AC, Sehmi K. Pigment epithelial diseases with abnormal choroidal perfusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 1980;90:607–18.
Holt WS, Regan CD, Trempe C. Acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1976;81:403–12.
Sigelman J, Behrens M, Hilal S. Acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy associated with cerebral vasculitis and homonymous hemianopia. Am J Ophthalmol. 1979;88:919–24.
Tsang BK-T, Chauhan DS, Haward R, Whiteman I, Frayne J, McLean C. Fatal ischemic stroke complicating acute multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy: histopathological findings. J Neuroophthalmol. 2014;34:10–5.
Priluck IA, Robertson DM, Buettner H. Acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy. Urinary findings. Arch Ophthalmol. 1981;99:1560–2.
Kirkham TH, Ffytche TJ, Sanders MD. Placoid pigment epitheliopathy with retinal vasculitis and papillitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1972;56:875–80.
Savino PJ, Weinberg RJ, Yassin JG, Pilkerton AR. Diverse manifestations of acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1974;77:659–62.
Jacklin HN. Acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy and thyroiditis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1977;95:995–7.
Hyvarinen L, Maumenee AE, George T, Weinstein GW. Fluorescein angiography of the choriocapillaris. Am J Ophthalmol. 1969;67:653–66.
Hamilton AM, Bird AC. Geographical choroidopathy. Br J Ophthalmol. 1974;58:784–97.
De Lay JJ. Fluoro-angiographic study of the choroid in man. Doc Ophthalmol. 1978;45:1–217.
Oosterhuis JA. The architecture of the choroidal vascular system in clinical ophthalmology. In: Shimizu K, Oosterhuis JA, editors. Acta XXIII Concilium Ophthalmologicum, Kyoto, 1978. Part 1. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1979. p. 242–8.
Uyama M, Itotagawa S, Uraguchi K, Ohkuma H, Miki K, Koshibu A. Pathology of choroidal circulatory disturbance. Part 2. Deprivation of the choroidal blood flow and its recovery, an experimental study (author’s transl). Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1980;84:1910–23.
Hayreh SS. Acute choroidal ischaemia. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1980;100:400–7.
Adhi M, Lau M, Liang MC, Waheed NK, Duker JS. Analysis of the thickness and vascular layers of the choroid in eyes with geographic atrophy using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography. Retina. 2014;34:306–12.
Friedman E, Smith TR, Kuwabara T, Beyer CK. Choroidal vascular patterns in hypertension. Arch Ophthalmol. 1964;71:842–50.
Wright BE, Bird AC, Hamilton AM. Placoid pigment epitheliopathy and Harada’s disease. Br J Ophthalmol. 1978;62:609–21.
Hayreh SS. Choroidal ischemia. Retina. 1982;2:191–2.
Parrish R, Gass JD, Anderson DR. Outer retina ischemic infarction–a newly recognized complication of cataract extraction and closed vitrectomy. Part 2. An animal model. Ophthalmology. 1982;89:1472–7.
Amalric P. The choriocapillaris in the macular area. Clinical and angiographic study. Int Ophthalmol. 1983;6:149–53.
Hayreh SS. Macular lesions secondary to choroidal vascular disorders. Int Ophthalmol. 1983;6:161–70.
Hayreh SS. In vivo choroidal circulation and its watershed zones. Eye (Lond). 1990;4(Pt 2):273–89.
Chen JC, Fitzke FW, Pauliekhoff D, Bird AC. Poor choroidal perfusion is a cause of visual morbidity in age-related macular degeneration [abstract]. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1989;30(Suppl):153.
Ross RD, Barofsky JM, Cohen G, Baber WB, Palao SW, Gitter KA. Presumed macular choroidal watershed vascular filling, choroidal neovascularization, and systemic vascular disease in patients with age-related macular degeneration. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;125:71–80.
Hayreh SS. Controversies on submacular choroidal circulation. Ophthalmologica. 1981;183:11–9.
Kornzweig AL. Changes in the choriocapillaris associated with senile macular degeneration. Ann Ophthalmol. 1977;9(753–6):59–62.
Sarks SH. Ageing and degeneration in the macular region: a clinico-pathological study. Br J Ophthalmol. 1976;60:324–41.
Sarks SH. Changes in the region of the choriocapillaris in ageing and degeneration. In: Shimizu K, Oosterhuis JA, editors. Acta XXIII Concilium Ophthalmologicum, Kyoto, 1978. Part 1. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1979. p. 228–38.
Grunwald JE, Hariprasad SM, DuPont J, Maguire MG, Fine SL, Brucker AJ, et al. Foveolar choroidal blood flow in age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1998;39:385–90.
Grunwald JE, Metelitsina TI, Dupont JC, Ying GS, Maguire MG. Reduced foveolar choroidal blood flow in eyes with increasing AMD severity. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46:1033–8.
Metelitsina TI, Grunwald JE, DuPont JC, Ying GS, Brucker AJ, Dunaief JL. Foveolar choroidal circulation and choroidal neovascularization in age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49:358–63.
Xu W, Grunwald JE, Metelitsina TI, DuPont JC, Ying GS, Martin ER, et al. Association of risk factors for choroidal neovascularization in age-related macular degeneration with decreased foveolar choroidal circulation. Am J Ophthalmol. 2010;150:40–7.
Hayreh SS. Submacular choroidal vascular bed watershed zones and their clinical importance. Am J Ophthalmol. 2010;150:940–1.
Gass JD. Radial chorioretinal folds. A sign of choroidal neovascularization. Arch Ophthalmol. 1981;99:1016–8.
Cunha-Vaz J. The blood-ocular barriers. Surv Ophthalmol. 1979;23:279–96.
Weiter J, Fine BS. A histologic study of regional choroidal dystrophy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1977;83:741–50.
Paton D, Duke JR. Primary familial amyloidosis. Ocular manifestations with histopathologic observations. Am J Ophthalmol. 1966;61:736–47.
Hayreh SS. Recent advances in fluorescein fundus angiography. Br J Ophthalmol. 1974;58:391–412.
Green JL, Rabb MF. Degeneration of Bruch’s membrane and retinal pigment epithelium. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1981;21(3):27–50.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hayreh, S.S. (2015). Posterior Ciliary Artery Occlusion and Choroidal Ischemia. In: Ocular Vascular Occlusive Disorders. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12781-1_18
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12781-1_18
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-12780-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-12781-1
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)