Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Phantom Pain: The Role of Maladaptive Plasticity and Emotional and Cognitive Variables

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Pain, Emotion and Cognition

Abstract

Phantom pain is a frequent sequel of the amputation of a limb or another body part and must be differentiated from residual limb pain, postoperative pain, and other chronic pain problems such as back pain that may occur simultaneously. In this chapter, we first discuss how maladaptive plasticity of the central nervous system in interaction with peripheral variables may contribute to phantom pain and then examine how emotional and cognitive variables modulate the phantom pain experience. We show that anxiety, depression, stress experiences, body representation, and memory processes as well as psychosocial variables are associated with both the development of phantom limb pain and its maintenance. In examining this issue, pain and disability-related emotional and cognitive factors must be differentiated. An integration of the described physiological changes with the psychological variables is still missing. We propose a model that integrates psychological and physiological variables in phantom limb pain and discuss implications for both pain assessment and treatment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Anderson-Barnes VC, McAuliffe C, Swanberg KM, Tsao JW (2009) Phantom limb pain – a phenomenon of proprioceptive memory? Med Hypotheses 73(4):555–558

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Angrilli A, Köster U (2000) Psychophysiological stress responses in amputees with and without phantom limb pain. Physiol Behav 68(5):699–706

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Annagür BB, Uguz F, Apiliogullari S, Kara İ, Gunduz S (2014) Psychiatric disorders and association with quality of sleep and quality of life in patients with chronic pain: a SCID-based study. Pain Med 15:772–781

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arena JG, Sherman RA, Bruno GM, Smith JD (1990) The relationship between situational stress and phantom limb pain: cross-lagged correlational data from six month pain logs. J Psychosom Res 34(1):71–77

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bek D, Demiralp B, Kömürcü M, Ateşalp S (2006) The relationship between phantom limb pain and neuroma. Acta Orthop Traumatol Turc 40(1):44–48

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birbaumer N, Lutzenberger W, Montoya P, Larbig W, Unertl K, Töpfner S, Flor H (1997) Effects of regional anesthesia on phantom limb pain are mirrored in changes in cortical reorganization. J Neurosci 17(14):5503–5508

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breivik H, Collett B, Ventafridda V, Cohen R, Gallacher D (2006) Survey of chronic pain in Europe: prevalence, impact on daily life, and treatment. Eur J Pain 10(4):287–333

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlen PL, Wall PD, Nadvorna H, Steinbach T (1978) Phantom limbs and related phenomena in recent traumatic amputations. Neurology 28(3):211–217

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castillo RC, Wegener ST, Heins SE, Haythornthwaite JA, MacKenzie EJ, Bosse MJ (2013) Longitudinal relationships between anxiety, depression, and pain: results from a two-year cohort study of lower extremity trauma patients. Pain 154(12):2860–2866

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chabal C, Jacobson L, Russell LC, Burchiel KJ (1989) Pain responses to perineuromal injection of normal saline, gallamine, and lidocaine in humans. Pain 36(3):321–325

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cronholm B (1951) Phantom limbs in amputees; a study of changes in the integration of centripetal impulses with special reference to referred sensations. Acta Psychiatr Neurol Scand Suppl 72:1–310

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Darnall BD, Ephraim P, Wegener ST, Dillingham T, Pezzin L, Rossbach P, MacKenzie EJ (2005) Depressive symptoms and mental health service utilization among persons with limb loss: results of a national survey. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 86(4):650–658

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Desmond DM, MacLachlan M (2006) Affective distress and amputation-related pain among older men with long-term, traumatic limb amputations. J Pain Symptom Manage 31(4):362–368

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Devor M, Wall PD (1978) Reorganisation of spinal cord sensory map after peripheral nerve injury. Nature 276(5683):75–76

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Devor M, Wall PD (1990) Cross-excitation in dorsal root ganglia of nerve-injured and intact rats. J Neurophysiol 64(6):1733–1746

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diesch E, Flor H (2007) Alteration in the response properties of primary somatosensory cortex related to differential aversive Pavlovian conditioning. Pain 131(1–2):171–180

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich C, Walter-Walsh K, Preißler S, Hofmann GO, Witte OW, Miltner WHR, Weiss T (2012) Sensory feedback prosthesis reduces phantom limb pain: proof of a principle. Neurosci Lett 507(2):97–100

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehde DM, Czerniecki JM, Smith DG, Campbell KM, Edwards WT, Jensen MP, Robinson LR (2000) Chronic phantom sensations, phantom pain, residual limb pain, and other regional pain after lower limb amputation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 81(8):1039–1044

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrsson HH, Spence C, Passingham RE (2004) That’s my hand! Activity in premotor cortex reflects feeling of ownership of a limb. Science 305(5685):875–877

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrsson HH, Rosén B, Stockselius A, Ragnö C, Köhler P, Lundborg G (2008) Upper limb amputees can be induced to experience a rubber hand as their own. Brain 131(12):3443–3452

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ephraim PL, Wegener ST, MacKenzie EJ, Dillingham TR, Pezzin LE (2005) Phantom pain, residual limb pain, and back pain in amputees: results of a national survey. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 86(10):1910–1919

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez E (2005) The relationship between anger and pain. Curr Pain Headache Rep 9(2):101–105

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fishbain DA, Cutler R, Rosomoff HL, Rosomoff RS (1997) Chronic pain-associated depression: antecedent or consequence of chronic pain? A review. Clin J Pain 13(2):116–137

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flor H (2002) Phantom-limb pain: characteristics, causes, and treatment. Lancet Neurol 1(3):182–189

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flor H (2003) Cortical reorganisation and chronic pain: implications for rehabilitation. J Rehabil Med (41 Suppl):66–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Flor H (2008) Maladaptive plasticity, memory for pain and phantom limb pain: review and suggestions for new therapies. Expert Rev Neurother 8(5):809–818

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flor H, Turk DC (2011) Chronic pain: an integrated biobehavioral approach. IASP Press, Seattle

    Google Scholar 

  • Flor DH, Rudy TE, Birbaumer N, Streit B, Schugens MM (1990) Zur Anwendbarkeit des West Haven-Yale Multidimensional Pain Inventory im deutschen Sprachraum. Schmerz 4(2):82–87

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flor H, Behle DJ, Birbaumer N (1993) Assessment of pain-related cognitions in chronic pain patients. Behav Res Ther 31(1):63–73

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flor H, Nikolajsen L, Jensen TS (2006) Phantom limb pain: a case of maladaptive CNS plasticity? Nat Rev Neurosci 7(11):873–881

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flor H, Diers M, Andoh J (2013) The neural basis of phantom limb pain. Trends Cogn Sci 17(7):307–308

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foell J, Bekrater-Bodmann R, Diers M, Flor H (2014) Mirror therapy for phantom limb pain: brain changes and the role of body representation. Eur J Pain 18(5):729–739

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fried K, Govrin-Lippmann R, Rosenthal F, Ellisman MH, Devor M (1991) Ultrastructure of afferent axon endings in a neuroma. J Neurocytol 20(8):682–701

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gatchel RJ, Peng YB, Peters ML, Fuchs PN, Turk DC (2007) The biopsychosocial approach to chronic pain: scientific advances and future directions. Psychol Bull 133(4):581–624

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giummarra MJ, Georgiou‐Karistianis N, Nicholls MER, Gibson SJ, Chou M, Bradshaw JL (2010) Corporeal awareness and proprioceptive sense of the phantom. Br J Psychol 101(4):791–808

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giummarra MJ, Georgiou-Karistianis N, Nicholls ME, Gibson SJ, Chou M, Bradshaw JL (2011a) Maladaptive plasticity: imprinting of past experiences onto phantom limb schemata. J Pain 27(8):691–698

    Google Scholar 

  • Giummarra MJ, Georgiou-Karistianisl N, Nicholls MER, Gibson SJ, Chou M, Bradshawl JL (2011b) The menacing phantom: what pulls the trigger? Eur J Pain 15(7):691.e1–691.e8

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorodetskaya N, Constantin C, Jänig W (2003) Ectopic activity in cutaneous regenerating afferent nerve fibers following nerve lesion in the rat. Eur J Neurosci 18(9):2487–2497

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grüsser SM, Winter C, Mühlnickel W, Denke C, Karl A, Villringer K, Flor H (2001) The relationship of perceptual phenomena and cortical reorganization in upper extremity amputees. Neuroscience 102(2):263–272

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanley MA, Jensen MP, Ehde DM, Hoffman AJ, Patterson DR, Robinson LR (2004) Psychosocial predictors of long-term adjustment to lower-limb amputation and phantom limb pain. Disabil Rehabil 26(14–15):882–893

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanley MA, Ehde DM, Jensen M, Czerniecki J, Smith DG, Robinson LR (2009) Chronic pain associated with upper-limb loss. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 88(9):742–779

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill A (1993) The use of pain coping strategies by patients with phantom limb pain. Pain 55(3):347–353

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill A (1999) Phantom limb pain: a review of the literature on attributes and potential mechanisms. J Pain Symptom Manage 17(2):125–142

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill A, Niven CA, Knussen C (1995) The role of coping in adjustment to phantom limb pain. Pain 62(1):79–86

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horgan O, MacLachlan M (2004) Psychosocial adjustment to lower-limb amputation: a review. Disabil Rehabil 26(14–15):837–850

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Houghton AD, Nicholls G, Houghton AL, Saadah E, McColl L (1994) Phantom pain: natural history and association with rehabilitation. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 76(1):22–25

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter JP, Katz J, Davis KD (2008) Stability of phantom limb phenomena after upper limb amputation: a longitudinal study. Neuroscience 156(4):939–949

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen TS, Nikolajsen L (2000) Pre-emptive analgesia in postamputation pain: an update. In: Nervous system plasticity and chronic pain, vol 129. Elsevier, Amsterdam/New York, pp 493–503

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen TS, Krebs B, Nielsen J, Rasmussen P (1983) Phantom limb, phantom pain and stump pain in amputees during the first 6 months following limb amputation. Pain 17(3):243–256

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen TS, Krebs B, Nielsen J, Rasmussen P (1985) Immediate and long-term phantom limb pain in amputees: incidence, clinical characteristics and relationship to pre-amputation limb pain. Pain 21(3):267–278

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen MP, Ehde DM, Hoffman AJ, Patterson DR, Czerniecki JM, Robinson LR (2002) Cognitions, coping and social environment predict adjustment to phantom limb pain. Pain 95(1–2):133–142

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johannesson A, Larsson GU, Ramstrand N, Turkiewicz A, Wirehn AB, Atroshi I (2009) Incidence of lower-limb amputation in the diabetic and nondiabetic general population. Diabetes Care 32(2):275–280

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones LE, Davidson JH (1995) The long-term outcome of upper limb amputees treated at a rehabilitation centre in Sydney, Australia. Disabil Rehabil 17(8):437–442

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaas JH (2000) The reorganization of somatosensory and motor cortex after peripheral nerve or spinal cord injury in primates. Prog Brain Res 128:173–179

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katz J (1992) Psychophysical correlates of phantom limb experience. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 55(9):811–821

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katz J, Melzack R (1990) Pain “memories” in phantom limbs: review and clinical observations. Pain 43(3):319–336

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kazemi H, Ghassemi S, Fereshtehnejad SM, Amini A, Kolivand PH, Doroudi T (2013) Anxiety and depression in patients with amputated limbs suffering from phantom pain: a comparative study with non-phantom chronic pain. Int J Prev Med 4(2):218–225

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kern U, Busch V, Rockland M, Kohl M, Birklein F (2009) Prävalenz und Risikofaktoren von Phantomschmerzen und Phantomwahrnehmungen in Deutschland [Prevalence and risk factors of phantom limb pain and phantom limb sensations in Germany. A nationwide field survey]. Schmerz 23(5):479–488

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kooijman CM, Dijkstra PU, Geertzen JH, Elzinga A, van der Schans CP (2000) Phantom pain and phantom sensations in upper limb amputees: an epidemiological study. Pain 87(1):33–41

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leeuw M, Goossens MEJB, Linton SJ, Crombez G, Boersma K, Vlaeyen JWS (2007) The fear-avoidance model of musculoskeletal pain: current state of scientific evidence. J Behav Med 30(1):77–94

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Linton SJ, Shaw WS (2011) Impact of psychological factors in the experience of pain. Phys Ther 91(5):700–711

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lotze M, Grodd W, Birbaumer N, Erb M, Huse E, Flor H (1999) Does use of a myoelectric prosthesis prevent cortical reorganization and phantom limb pain? Nat Neurosci 2(6):501–502

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Makin TR, Scholz J, Filippini N, Henderson Slater D, Tracey I, Johansen-Berg H (2013) Phantom pain is associated with preserved structure and function in the former hand area. Nat Commun 4:1570

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mall CP, Trivedi JK, Mishra US, Sharma VP, Dalal PK, Katiyar M, Sinha PK (1997) Psychiatric sequelae of amputation: I immediate effects. Indian J Psychiatry 39(4):313–317

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall HM, Jensen MP, Ehde DM, Campbell KM (2002) Pain site and impairment in individuals with amputation pain. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 83(8):1116–1119

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melzack R, Israel R, Lacroix R, Schultz G (1997) Phantom limbs in people with congenital limb deficiency or amputation in early childhood. Brain 120(9):1603–1620

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Montoya P, Ritter K, Huse E, Larbig W, Braun C, Töpfner S, Birbaumer N (1998) The cortical somatotopic map and phantom phenomena in subjects with congenital limb atrophy and traumatic amputees with phantom limb pain. Eur J Neurosci 10(3):1095–1102

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nico D, Daprati E, Rigal F, Parsons L, Sirigu A (2004) Left and right hand recognition in upper limb amputees. Brain 127(1):120–132

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nikolajsen L, Ilkjær S, Krøner K, Christensen JH, Jensen TS (1997) The influence of preamputation pain on postamputation stump and phantom pain. Pain 72(3):393–405

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nikolajsen L, Ilkjær S, Jensen TS (2000) Relationship between mechanical sensitivity and postamputation pain: a prospective study. Eur J Pain 4(4):327–334

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nitzan-Luques A, Devor M, Tal M (2011) Genotype-selective phenotypic switch in primary afferent neurons contributes to neuropathic pain. Pain 152(10):2413–2426

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parkes CM (1973) Factors determining the persistence of phantom pain in the amputee. J Psychosom Res 17(2):97–108. doi:10.1016/0022-3999(73)90010-X

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peck JR, Smith TW, Ward JR, Milano R (1989) Disability and depression in rheumatoid arthritis. A multi-trait, multi-method investigation. Arthritis Rheum 32(9):1100–1106

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pohjolainen T (1991) A clinical evaluation of stumps in lower limb amputees. Prosthet Orthot Int 15(3):178–184. doi:10.3109/03093649109164285

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramachandran VS, Hirstein W (1998) The perception of phantom limbs. The DO Hebb lecture. Brain 121(9):1603–1630

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reinersmann A, Haarmeyer GS, Blankenburg M, Frettlöh J, Krumova EK, Ocklenburg S, Maier C (2010) Left is where the L is right. Significantly delayed reaction time in limb laterality recognition in both CRPS and phantom limb pain patients. Neurosci Lett 486(3):240–245

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson C, Glenn S, Nurmikko T, Horgan M (2006) Incidence of phantom phenomena including phantom limb pain 6 months after major lower limb amputation in patients with peripheral vascular disease. Clin J Pain 22(4):353–358

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson C, Glenn S, Horgan M, Nurmikko T (2007) A prospective study of factors associated with the presence of phantom limb pain six months after major lower limb amputation in patients with peripheral vascular disease. J Pain 8(10):793–801

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenstiel AK, Keefe FJ (1983) The use of coping strategies in chronic low back pain patients: relationship to patient characteristics and current adjustment. Pain 17(1):33–44

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schley MT, Wilms P, Toepfner S, Schaller HP, Schmelz M, Konrad CJ, Birbaumer N (2008) Painful and nonpainful phantom and stump sensations in acute traumatic amputees. J Trauma 65(4):858–864

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmalzl L, Kalckert A, Ragno C, Ehrsson HH (2014) Neural correlates of the rubber hand illusion in amputees: a report of two cases. Neurocase 20(4):407–420

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman RA (1994) Phantom limb pain. Mechanism-based management. Clin Podiatr Med Surg 11(1):85–106

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman RA, Sherman CJ, Parker L (1984) Chronic phantom and stump pain among American veterans: results of a survey. Pain 18(1):83–95

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman RA, Sherman CJ, Bruno GM (1987) Psychological factors influencing chronic phantom limb pain: an analysis of the literature. Pain 28(3):285–295

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman RA, Arena JG, Sherman CJ, Ernst JL (1989) The mystery of phantom pain: growing evidence for psychophysiological mechanisms. Biofeedback Self Regul 14(4):267–280

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman RA, Griffin VD, Evans CB, Grana AS (1992) Temporal relationships between changes in phantom limb pain intensity and changes in surface electromyogram of the residual limb. Int J Psychophysiol 13(1):71–77

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shukla GD, Sahu SC, Tripathi RP, Gupta DK (1982a) A psychiatric study of amputees. Br J Psychiatry 141(1):50–53

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shukla GD, Sahu SC, Tripathi RP, Gupta DK (1982b) Phantom limb: a phenomenological study. Br J Psychiatry 141:54–58

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simons LE, Elman I, Borsook D (2014) Psychological processing in chronic pain: a neural systems approach. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 39:61–78

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh R, Ripley D, Pentland B, Todd I, Hunter J, Hutton L, Philip A (2009) Depression and anxiety symptoms after lower limb amputation: the rise and fall. Clin Rehabil 23(3):281–286

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith É, Comiskey C, Ryall N (2008) Prevalence and patterns of back pain and residual limb pain in lower limb amputees at the National Rehabilitation Hospital. Ir J Med Sci 177(1):53–57

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan MJL, Bishop SR, Pivik J (1995) The pain catastrophizing scale: development and validation. Psychol Assess 7(4):524–532

    Google Scholar 

  • Trivedi JK, Mall CP, Mishra US, Sharma VP, Dalal PK, Katiyar M, Sinha PK (1997) Psychiatric sequelae of amputation: II long term effects. Indian J Psychiatry 39(4):318–323

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turk DC (1999) The role of psychological factors in chronic pain. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 43(9):885–888

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turk DC (2002) A diathesis-stress model of chronic pain and disability following traumatic injury. Pain Res Manag 7(1):9–19

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turk DC, Meichenbaum D, Genest M (1983) Pain and behavioral medicine: a cognitive-behavioral perspective. Guilford Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Vase L, Nikolajsen L, Christensen B, Egsgaard LL, Arendt-Nielsen L, Svensson P, Staehelin Jensen T (2011) Cognitive-emotional sensitization contributes to wind-up-like pain in phantom limb pain patients. Pain 152(1):157–162

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vase L, Egsgaard LL, Nikolajsen L, Svensson P, Jensen TS, Arendt-Nielsen L (2012) Pain catastrophizing and cortical responses in amputees with varying levels of phantom limb pain: a high-density EEG brain-mapping study. Exp Brain Res 218(3):407–417

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaso A, Adahan HM, Gjika A, Zahaj S, Zhurda T, Vyshka G, Devor M (2014) Peripheral nervous system origin of phantom limb pain. Pain 155:1384–1391

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vlaeyen JWS, Linton SJ (2000) Fear-avoidance and its consequences in chronic musculoskeletal pain: a state of the art. Pain 85(3):317–332

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wartan SW, Hamann W, Wedley JR, McColl I (1997) Phantom pain and sensation among British veteran amputees. Br J Anaesth 78(6):652–659

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson J, Gonzalez M, Romero A, Kerns J (2010) Neuromas of the hand and upper extremity. J Hand Surg Am 35(3):499–510

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss T, Miltner WH, Adler T, Brückner L, Taub E (1999) Decrease in phantom limb pain associated with prosthesis-induced increased use of an amputation stump in humans. Neurosci Lett 272(2):131–134

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wertli MM, Eugster R, Held U, Steurer J, Kofmehl R, Weiser S (2014) Catastrophizing – a prognostic factor for outcome in patients with low back pain – a systematic review. Spine J 14:2639–2657

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whyte A, Carroll L (2004) The relationship between catastrophizing and disability in amputees experiencing phantom pain. Disabil Rehabil 26(11):649–654

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whyte AS, Niven CA (2001a) Psychological distress in amputees with phantom limb pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 22(5):938–946

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whyte AS, Niven CA (2001b) Variation in phantom limb pain: results of a diary study. J Pain Symptom Manage 22(5):947–953

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wiffen P, Meynadier J, Dubois M, Thurel C, deSmet J, Harden RN (2006) Diagnostic and treatment issues in postamputation pain after landmine injury. Pain Med 7(Suppl 2):S209–S212

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkins KL, McGrath PJ, Finley GA, Katz J (1998) Phantom limb sensations and phantom limb pain in child and adolescent amputees. Pain 78(1):7–12

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woolf CJ (2004) Dissecting out mechanisms responsible for peripheral neuropathic pain: implications for diagnosis and therapy. Life Sci 74(21):2605–2610

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ypsilantis E, Tang TY (2010) Pre-emptive analgesia for chronic limb pain after amputation for peripheral vascular disease: a systematic review. Ann Vasc Surg 24(8):1139–1146

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ziegler-Graham K, MacKenzie EJ, Ephraim PL, Travison TG, Brookmeyer R (2008) Estimating the prevalence of limb loss in the United States: 2005 to 2050. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 89(3):422–429

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

This research was supported by the European Research Council Advanced Grant “Phantom phenomena: A window to the mind and the brain (PHANTOMMIND)” (FP7/2007–2013)/230249 to HF.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany

    Xaver Fuchs, Robin Bekrater-Bodmann PhD & Herta Flor PhD

Authors
  1. Xaver Fuchs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Robin Bekrater-Bodmann PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Herta Flor PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Herta Flor PhD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Clinical Pharmacology Department, University Hospital CIC Inserm1405, Clermont-Ferrand, France

    Gisèle Pickering

  2. Clinical Research Division, Royal Melbourne Hospital National Ageing Research Institute, Victoria, Australia

    Stephen Gibson

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Fuchs, X., Bekrater-Bodmann, R., Flor, H. (2015). Phantom Pain: The Role of Maladaptive Plasticity and Emotional and Cognitive Variables. In: Pickering, G., Gibson, S. (eds) Pain, Emotion and Cognition. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12033-1_12

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12033-1_12

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-12032-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-12033-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation