Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-food Sector pp 185–249Cite as

Life Cycle Assessment in the Cereal and Derived Products Sector

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

This chapter discusses the application of life cycle assessment methodologies to rice, wheat, corn and some of their derived products. Cereal product systems are vital for the production of commodities of worldwide importance that entail particular environmental hot spots originating from their widespread use and from their particular nature. It is thus important for tools such as life cycle assessment (LCA) to be tailored to such cereal systems in order to be used as a means of identifying the negative environmental effects of cereal products and highlighting possible pathways to overall environmental improvement in such systems. Following a brief introduction to the cereal sector and supply chain, this chapter reviews some of the current cereal-based life cycle thinking literature, with a particular emphasis on LCA. Next, an analysis of the LCA methodological issues emerging from the literature review is carried out. The following section of the chapter discusses some practices and approaches that should be considered when performing cereal-based LCAs in order to achieve the best possible results. Conclusions are drawn in the final part of the chapter and some indications are given of the main hot spots in the cereal supply chain.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    ‘The total burdens of producing grain and straw are: \(\text{T}=\text{H}+(1-{{p}_{s}})I+{{p}_{s}}\text{B}+{}\text{ D}\)$.$ Then the burden allocated to grain is: \({{\text{G}}^{\text{* }{}}}=(\text{H}+\text{I})({{\text{Y}}_{\text{g}}}/{{\text{Y}}_{\text{g}}}+{{\text{v}}_{\text{s}}}{{\text{p}}_{\text{s}}}{{\text{Y}}_{\text{s}}})+\text{D}\), and the burden allocated to straw is: \({{\text{S}}^{\text{* }{}}}=((\text{H}+\text{I})({{\text{v}}_{\text{s}}}{{\text{p}}_{\text{s}}}{{\text{Y}}_{\text{s}}}))\text{/(}({{\text{Y}}_{\text{g}}}+{{\text{v}}_{\text{s}}}{{\text{p}}_{\text{s}}}{{\text{Y}}_{\text{s}}}))+{{\text{p}}_{\text{s}}}(\text{B}-\text{I})\) where H is the vector of burdens of producing grain up to the end of combine harvesting per hectare, I is the vector of burdens of chopping for incorporation for all straw produced, D is the vector of burdens of drying and storage of grain, B is the vector of straw baling burdens for all straw produced, ${{\text{p}}_{\text{s}}}$ is the proportion of straw baled and harvested, ${{\text{Y}}_{\text{g}}}$ is the net yield of grain per hectare at standard DM content, ${{\text{Y}}_{\text{s}}}$ is the yield of straw per hectare (whether harvested or not) at standard DM content, and ${{\text{v}}_{\text{s}}}$ is the relative value of the straw prior to baling versus the grain, typically 0.05’ (Williams et al. 2010

References

  • Aldaya, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2010). The water needed for Italians to eat pasta and pizza. Agricultural Systems, 103(6), 351–360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aldaya, M. M., Muñoz, G., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2010). Water footprint of cotton, wheat and rice production in Central Asia. Value of Water Research Report Series No.41, UNESCO-IHE

    Google Scholar 

  • Audsley, E., Alber, S., Clift, R., Cowell, S., Crettaz, P., Gaillard, G., Hausheer, J., Jolliet, O., Kleijn, R., Mortensen, B., Pearce, D., Roger, E., Teulon, H., Weidema, B. and Van Zeijts, H. (2003). Harmonisation of Environmental Life Cycle Assessment for Agriculture. Final Report Concerted Action AIR3-CT94-2028. European Commission, Silsoe, United Kingdom, p. 70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Awika, J. M. (2011). Major cereal grains production and use around the world. In J. M. Awika, V. Piironen, & S. Bean (Eds.), Cereal science: Implications to food processing and health promotion (pp. 1–13). Washington, DC: ACS Symposium Series, American Chemical Society.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Benedetto, G., Petti, L., & Raggi, A. (2013, November). The potential of the LCT approaches in supporting economic choices at company level in the agri-food sector. Poster paper presented during the19th SETAC LCA Case Study Symposium, Rome, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berthoud, A., Maupu, P., Hue, C., & Poupart, A. (2011). Assessing freshwater ecotoxicity of agricultural products assessing freshwater ecotoxicity of agricultural products in life cycle assessment (LCA): A case study of wheat using French agricultural practices databases and USEtox model. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 16, 841–847.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bevilacqua, M., Braglia, M., Carmignani, G., & Zammori, F. A. (2007). Life cycle assessment of pasta production in Italy. Journal of Food Quality, 30, 932–952.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Birkved, M., & Hauschild, M. Z. (2006) PestLCI—A model for estimating field emissions of pesticides in agricultural LCA. Ecological Modelling, 198, 433–451

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biswas, W. K., Graham, J., Kelly, K., & John, M. B. (2010). Global warming contributions from wheat, sheep meat and wool production in Victoria, Australia e a life cycle assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production, 18, 1386–1392.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blengini, G. A., & Busto, M. (2009). The life cycle of rice: LCA of alternative agri-food chain management systems in Vercelli, Italy. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, 1512–1522.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brankatschk, G., & Finkbeiner, M. (2012, October). Allocation challenges in agricultural life cycle assessments and the Cereal Unit allocation procedure as a potential solution. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, Saint-Malò, France.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braschkat, J., Patyk, A., Quirin, M., & Reinhardt, G. A. (2003, October). Life cycle assessment of bread production—a comparison of eight different scenarios. Paper presented at the 4th Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, Bygholm, Denmark.

    Google Scholar 

  • Breiling, M., Hashimoto, S., Sato, Y., & Ahamer, G. (2005). Rice-related greenhouse gases in Japan, variations in scale and time and significance for the Kyoto Protocol. Paddy and Water Environment, 3(1), 39–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brentrup, F., Küsters, J., Lammel, J., Kuhlmann, H., (2000). Methods to estimate on-field nitrogen emissions from crop production as an input to LCA studies in the agricultural sector. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., 5, 349–357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brentrup, F., Küsters, J., Lammela, J., Barraclough, P., & Kuhlmann, H. (2004). Environmental impact assessment of agricultural production systems using the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology II. The application to N fertilizer use in winter wheat production systems. European Journal of Agronomy, 20, 265–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bretz, R. (1998). SETAC LCA workgroup: Data availability and data quality. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 3(3), 121–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carozzi, M., Ferrara, R. M., Rana, G., & Acutis, M. (2013). Evaluation of mitigation strategies to reduce ammonia losses from slurry fertilisation on arable lands. Science of the Total Environment, 449, 126–133.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cerutti, A. K., Beccaro, G., Bagliani, M., Contu, S., Donno, D., & Bounous, G. (2012). Ecological footprint applied in agro-ecosystems: Methods and case studies, the functioning of ecosystems, Prof. Mahamane Ali (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0573-2, In Tech, doi:10.5772/35966. http://www.intechopen.com/books/the-functioning-of-ecosystems/ecological-footprint-applied-in-agro-ecosystems-methods-and-case-studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapagain, A. K., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2011). The blue, green and grey water footprint of rice from production and consumption perspectives. Ecological Economics, 70, 749–758.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charles, R., Jolliet, O., Gaillard, G., & Pellet, D. (2006). Environmental analysis of intensity level in wheat crop production using life cycle assessment. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 113, 216–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cordain, L. (1999). Cereal grains: Humanity’s double-edged sword. World Review Nutrition Dietetics Basel, Karger, 84, 19–73.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curran, M. A. (2008). Development of life cycle assessment methodology: A focus on co-product allocation. Rotterdam: Erasmus University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delivand, M. K., Barz, M., Gheewala, S. H., & Sajjakulnukit, B. (2012). Environmental and socio-economic feasibility assessment of rice straw conversion to power and ethanol in Thailand. Journal of Cleaner Production, 37, 29–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, J. (2002). Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication. Nature, 418, 700–707. doi:10.1038/nature01019.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dijkman, T. J., Birkved, M., & Hauschild, M. Z. (2012) PestLCI 2.0: A second generation model for estimating emissions of pesticides from arable land in LCA. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 17, 973–986.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drocourt, A., Mervant, Y., Milhau, F., Chinal, M., & Hélias, A. (2012, October). Environmental assessment of rice production in Camargue, France. Paper presented at the 8th Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, Saint-Malò, France).

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyson, T. (1999). World food trends and prospects to 2025. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences United Sates of America, 96, 5929–5936. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.11.5929

    Google Scholar 

  • Ecoinvent—version 3. http://www.ecoinvent.ch/. Accessed 10 Jan 2014.

  • Editorial of Journal of Cleaner Production. (2008). Sustainability and supply chain management: An introduction to the special issue. Journal of Cleaner Production, 16, 1545–1551. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2008.02.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ekval, T., & Weidema, B. P. (2004). System boundaries and input data in consequential life cycle inventory analysis. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 9, 161–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elkington, J. (1997). Cannibals with Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Oxford: Capstone Publishing Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Environdec. (2014). http://www.environdec.com/PCR/Pcr-Search/?Category=6192/. Accessed 13 Jan 2014.

  • Eshun, J. F., Apori, S. O., & Wereko, E. (2013). Greenhouse gaseous emission and energy analysis in rice production systems in Ghana. African Crop Science Journal, 21(2), 119–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Espinoza-Orias, N., Stichnothe, H., & Azapagic, A. (2011). The carbon footprint of bread. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 16, 351–365.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fallahpour, F., Aminghafouri A., Ghalegolab Behbahani, A., & Bannayan M. (2012). The envi-ronmental impact assessment of wheat and barley production by using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. Environment Development and Sustainability, 14, 979–992.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FAO. (2011a). FAOSTAT statistical database. http://faostat.fao.org/.

  • FAO. (2011b). Save and grow. A policy maker’s guide to the sustainable intensification of smallholder crop production. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2215e/i2215e.pdf. Accessed 15 Nov 2013.

  • FAO. (2011c). Energy-smart food for people and climate. Issue paper. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2454e/i2454e00.pdf. Accessed 25 Nov 2013.

  • FAO. (2013a). Food wastage footprint. Impacts on natural resources. Summary reports. http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3347e/i3347e.pdf. Accessed 10 Dec 2013.

  • FAO. (2013b). FAO statistical yearbook 2013 world food and agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. ISBN 978-92-5107396-4.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO, IFAD, & WFP. (2013). The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2013. The multiple dimensions of food security. Rome, FAO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferng, J. J. (2011). Measuring and locating footprints: A case study of Taiwan’s rice and wheat consumption footprint. Ecological Economics, 71, 191–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gan, Y., Liang, C., Hamel, C., Cutforth, H., & Wang, H., (2011a). Strategies for reducing the carbon footprint of field crops for semiarid areas. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 31, 643–656.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gan, Y., Liang, C., Wang, X., & McConkey, B. (2011b). Lowering carbon footprint of durum wheat by diversifying cropping systems. Field Crops Research, 122, 199–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gnansounou, E., Dauriat, A., Villegas, J., & Panichelli, L. (2009). Life cycle assessment of biofuels: Energy and greenhouse gas balances. Bioresource Technology, 100, 4919–4930.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guinée, J. B., Gorée, M., Heijungs, R., Huppes, G., Kleijn, R., Koning, A., de Oers, L., van Wegener Sleeswijk, A., Suh, S., Udo de Haes, H. A., Bruijn, H., de Duin, R., & van Huijbregts, M. A. J. (2002). Handbook on life cycle assessment. Operational guide to the ISO standards. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guinée, J. B., Heijungs, R., & Huppes, G. (2004). Economic allocation: Examples and derived decision tree. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 9(1), 23–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harada, H., Kobayashi, H., & Shindo, H. (2007). Reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by no-tilling rice cultivation in Hachirogata polder, northern Japan: Life-cycle inventory analysis. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 53, 668–677.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hauschild, M. Z., Goedkoop, M., Guinée, J., Heijungs, R., Huijbregts, M., Jolliet, O., Margni, M., De Schryver, A., Humbert, S., Laurent, A., Sala, S., & Pant, R. (2013). Identifying best existing practice for characterization modeling in life cycle impact assessment. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 18, 683–697.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hayashi, K., Uchida, S., Hokazono, S., & Sato, M. (2010, September). Modelling life cycle inventories for crop production in Japan: Development of the NARO LCI database. Paper presented at the VII International Conference on Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-Food Sector, Bari, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayashi, K. (2013). Practical recommendations for supporting agricultural decisions through life cycle assessment based on two alternative views of crop production: the example of organic conversion. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., 18, 331–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hokazono, S., & Hayashi, K. (2012). Variability in environmental impacts during conversion from conventional to organic farming: A comparison among three rice production systems in Japan. Journal of Clearner Production, 28, 101–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, J., Ridoutt, B. G., Huang, F., & Chen, F. (2012, October). Water footprints of wheat and maize: Comparison between China’s main breadbasket basins. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, Saint-Malò, France.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huijbregts, M. A. J., Hellweg, S., Frischknecht, R., Hendriks, H. W. M., Hungerbuhler, K., & Hendriks, A. J. (2010). Cumulative energy demand as predictor for the environmental burden of commodity production. Environmental Science and Technology, 44(6), 2189–2196.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Impact World. http://www.impactworldplus.org/en/presentation.php. Accessed 10 Jan 2014.

  • IPCC. (2006) IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories, vol. 4.

    Google Scholar 

  • ISO. (2006). 14025: Environmental labelling and declarations—Type III environmental declarations—Principles and procedures. International Organization for Standardization.

    Google Scholar 

  • JRC-IES-European Commission. (2010). General guide for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)—Detailed guidance. ILCD Handbook—International Reference Life Cycle Data System. . http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/assessment/publications. Accessed 20 Dec 2013.

  • JRC-IES-European Commission. (2011). Recommendations based on existing environmental impact assessment models and factors for life cycle assessment in European context. ILCD Handbook—International Reference Life Cycle Data System. . http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/assessment/assessment/projects#consultation_impact. Accessed 3 Jan 2014.

  • Kägi, T., Wettstein, D., & Dinkel, F. (2010, September). Comparing rice products: Confidence intervals as a solution to avoid wrong conclusions in communicating carbon footprints. Paper presented at the VII International Conference on Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-Food Sector, Bari, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kasmaprapruet, S., Paengjuntuek, W., Saikhwan, P., & Phungrassami, H. (2009). Life cycle assessment of milled rice production: Case study in Thailand. European Journal of Scientific Research, 30(2), 195–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khoo, H. H., Wong, J. L., & Tan, R. B. H. (2010, September). An LCA approach for evaluating the Global Warming Potential of various food types imported to Singapore. Paper presented at the VII International Conference on Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-Food Sector, Bari, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S., & Dale, B. E. (2002). Allocation procedure in ethanol production system from corn grain i. system expansion. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 7(4), 237–243.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S., & Dale, B. E. (2008a). Effects of nitrogen fertilizer application on greenhouse gas emissions and economics of corn production. Environmental Science and Technology, 42, 6028–6033.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S., & Dale, B. E. (2008b). Life cycle assessment of fuel ethanol derived from corn grain via dry milling. Bioresource Technology, 99(12), 5250–5260.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S., Dale, B. E., & Jenkins, R. (2009) Life cycle assessment of corn grain and corn stover in the US. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 14, 160–174.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kirk-Othmer (1984). Wheat and other cereal grains. In Encyclopedia of Chemical technology (Vol. 24). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kissinger, M., & Gottliebb, D. (2010). Place oriented ecological footprint analysis—The case of Israel’s grain supply. Ecological Economics, 69(8), 1639–1645.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kløverpris, J. H., Baltzer, K., & Nielsen, P. H. (2010). Life cycle inventory modelling of land use induced by crop consumption. Part 2: Example of wheat consumption in Brazil, China, Denmark and the USA. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 15, 90–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kraisintu, K., & Zhang, T. (2011). The role of traceability in sustainable supply chain management. Master of Science Thesis Report No. E2011:085. Chalmers University of Technology. Gothenburg, Sweden. http://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146242.pdf. Accessed 3 Dec 2013.

  • Kulak, M., Nemecek, T., Frossard, E., & Gaillard, G. (2012, October). Ecodesign opportunities for a farmer’s bread. Two case studies from north-western France. Paper presented at the 8th Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, Saint-Malò, France.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laurent, E., Bellino, R., & Le Pochat, S. (2012, October). Availability and completeness of LCI of cereal products and related databases. Paper presented at the 8th Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, Saint-Malò, France.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li Borrion, A., McManus, M. C., & Hammond, G. P. (2012). Environmental life cycle assessment of bioethanol production from wheat straw. Biomass and Bioenergy, 47, 9–19.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lipinski, B., Hanson, C., Lomax, J., Kitinoja L., Waite, R., & Searchinger, T. (2013). Reducing food loss and waste. Working paper. World Resources Institute. http://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/reducing_food_loss_and_waste.pdf. Accessed 3 Dec 2013.

  • Lo Giudice, A., Clasadonte, M. T., & Matarazzo, A. (2011). LCI preliminary results in the Sicilian durum wheat pasta chain production. Journal of Commodity Science, Technology and Quality, 50(I), 65–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malça, J., & Freire, F. (2012). Addressing land use change and uncertainty in the life-cycle assessment of wheat-based bioethanol. Energy, 45(1), 519–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Margni, M., & Curran, M. A. (2012). Life cycle impact assessment. In M. A. Curran (Ed.), Life cycle assessment handbook: A guide for environmentally sustainable products (pp. 67–104). USA: Wiley.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • McConkey, B., Chen, C., Maxime, D., Kulshrestha, S., Vergé, X., & Desjardins, R. (2012, October). Green, blue, and grey water use of Canadian wheat and maize. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, Saint-Malò, France.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meisterling, K., Samaras, C., & Schweizer, V. (2009). Decisions to reduce greenhouse gases from agriculture and product transport: LCA case study of organic and conventional wheat. Journal of Cleaner Production, 17, 222–230.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muñoz, E., Montalba, R., & Herrera, J. (2012, November). Evaluation of two styles of Chilean wheat by means of LCA methodology. Paper presented at the 2nd anviR LCA Conference, Lille, France.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, C., & Kendall, A. (2013). Life cycle inventory development for corn and stover production systems under different allocation methods. Biomass and Bioenergy, 58, 67–75.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nalley, L., Popp, M., & Fortin, C. (2011). The impact of reducing greenhouse gas emissions in crop agriculture: A spatial and production-level analysis. Agricultural and Resource Economics Review, 40(1), 63–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Narayanaswamy, V., Altham, V., Van Berkel, R., & McGregor, M. (2004). Environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Case Studies for Western Australian Grain Products, Project Funded by Grain Research & Development Corporation, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory. (2005). Century soil organic matter model: User’s guide and reference, Colorado State University. http://www.nrel.colostate.edu/projects/century5/reference/index.htm.

  • Nemecek, T., & Baumgartner, D. (2006). Environmental impacts of introducing grain legumes into European crop rotations and pig feed formulas. Concerted Action GL-Pro, Final report WP4. Agroscope Reckenholz-T¨anikon Research Station ART, p. 63. http://www.art.admin.ch/themen/00617/00789/index.html?lang=En-US.

  • Nemecek, T., & Erzinger, S. (2005). Modelling representative life cycle inventories for Swiss arable crops. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 10, 68–76.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nemececk, T., von Richthofen, J. S., Dubois, G., Casta, P., Charles, R., & Hubert, P. (2008). Environmental impacts of introducing grain legumes into European crop rotations. European Journal of Agronomy, 28, 380–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niero, M., Manzardo, A., Toniolo, S., Zuliani, F., & Scipioni, A. (2012, October). Uncertainty analysis in a comparative LCA between organic and conventional farming of soybean and barley. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, Saint-Malò, France.

    Google Scholar 

  • Notarnicola, B., & Nicoletti, G. M. (2001). Life cycle assessment of pasta and couscous. Tecnica Molitoria, 52(1), 19–27, 33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Notarnicola, B., Mongelli, I., Tassielli, G., & Nicoletti, G. M. (2004). Environmental input-output analysis and hybrid approaches to improve the setup of the pasta life cycle inventory. Journal of Commodity Science, 43(II), 59–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Notarnicola, B., Tassielli, G., & Renzulli, P. A. (2012). Modeling the agri‐food industry with life cycle assessment. In M. A. Curran (Ed.), Life cycle assessment handbook: A guide for environmentally sustainable products (pp. 159–183), Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Notarnicola, B., Hayashi, K., Curran, M. A. & Huisingh, D. (2012a). Progress in working towards a more sustainable agri-food industry. Journal of Cleaner Production, 28, 1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Pelletier, N., Arsenault, N., & Tyedmers, P. (2008). Scenario modelling potential eco-efficiency gains from a transition to organic agriculture: life cycle perspectives on Canadian canola, corn, soy, and wheat production. Environmental Management, 42, 989–1001.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petti, L., Raggi, A., Pagliuca, G., & Ancona, F. (2000, May). LCA implementation to pasta products: A case study. Paper presented 3rd SETAC World Congress, Brighton, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Place, F., & Meybeck, A. (Eds.). (2013, April). Food security and sustainable resource use—what are the resource challenges to food security? Background paper for the conference Food Security Futures: Research Priorities for the 21st Century, Dublin, Ireland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prasara A. J., & Grant, T. (2011). Comparative life cycle assessment of uses of rice husk for energy purposes. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 16(6), 493–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Proto, M. (1988). Evoluzione e stato attuale della produzione e csumi di margarina. Industrie Alimentari 17(4), 640–648.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reardon, T., & Timmer, C. P. (2012). The economics of food system revolution. Annual Review of Resource and Economics, 4, 225–264. doi:10.1146/annurev.resource.050708.144147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reap, J., Roman, F., Duncan, S., Bras, B., (2008). A survey of unresolved problems in life cycle assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., 13(5), 374–388.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renewable Fuels Association (RFA). (2010). Ethanol Industry Outlook: Climate of Opportunity. http://www.ethanolrfa.org/. last visited 16/12/2013. Accessed 14 Dec 2013.

  • Renouf, M. A., Wegener, M. K., & Nielsen, L. K. (2008). An environmental life cycle assessment comparing Australian sugarcane with US corn and UK sugar beet as producers of sugars for fermentation. Biomass and Bioenergy, 32, 1144–1155.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roer, A. G., Korsaeth, A., Henriksen, T.M., Michelsen, O., & Strømman, A. H. (2012). The influence of system boundaries on life cycle assessment of grain production in central southeast Norway. Agricultural Systems, 111, 75–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Röös, E., Sundberg, C., & Hansson, P. A. (2011). Uncertainties in the carbon footprint of refined wheat products: A case study on Swedish pasta. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 16(4), 338–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roy, P., Shimizu, N., & Kimura, T. (2005). Life cycle inventory analysis of rice produced by local processes. Journal of the Japanese Society of Agricultural Machinery, 67(1), 61–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roy, P., Shimizu, N., Okadome, H., Shiina, T., & Kimura, T. (2007). Life cycle of rice: Challenges and choices for Bangladesh. Journal of Food Engineering, 79, 1250–1255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roy, P., Nei, D., Orikasa, T., Xu, Q., Okadome, H., Nakamura, N. & Shiina, T. (2009a). A review of life cycle assessment (LCA) on some food products. Journal of Food Engineering, 90(1), 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roy, P., Ijiri, T., Nei, D., Orikasa, T., Okadome, H., Nakamura, N. & Shiina, T. (2009b). Life cycle inventory (LCI) of different forms of rice consumed in households in Japan. Journal of Food Engineering, 91, 49–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruini, L. (2011, Giugno). LCA & EPD: dall’Analisi all’Azione. Paper presented at the Conference of the Rete Italiana LCA, Rome, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruini, L., & Marino, M. (2010, September). An overview of environmental indicators aimed to an easy life cycle assessment results presentation by an important food supplier: The example of durum wheat cultivation. Paper presented at the VII International Conference on Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-Food Sector, Bari, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruini L., Campra L., Marino, M., Filareto A., Bagliani M., & Contu, S. (2010, June). Ecological footprint as large-scale pasta producer Key Performance Indicators (KPI). The State of the Art in Ecological Footprint Theory and Applications. Paper presented at FOOTPRINT FORUM 2010 Academic Conference, Siena, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruini, L., Marchelli, L., Marino, M., & Filareto, A. (2012, October). Barilla EPD process system to increase reliability, comparability and communicability of LCA studies. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, Saint-Malò, France.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruini, L., Ferrari, E., Meriggi, P., Marino, M., & Sessa, F. (2013, May). Increasing the sustainability of pasta production through a life cycle assessment approach. Paper presented at the 4th International Workshop Advances in cleaner production, São Paulo, Brazil.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salomone, R., & Ciraolo, L. (2004, September). Applicazione della metodologia Life Cycle Assessment alla produzione di pasta: alcuni risultati preliminari. Paper presented at the XXI Congresso Scienze Merceologiche Risorse naturali e sviluppo economico-sociale. Foggia, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schau, E. M., & Fet, A. M. (2008). LCA studies of food products as background for environmental product declarations. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 13(3), 255–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, J. H. (2008). System delimitation in agricultural consequential LCA—Outline of methodology and illustrative case study of wheat in Denmark. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 13, 350–364.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seda, M., Anton, A., & Munoz, P. (2010, September). Analysing the influence of the functional unit in agricultural LCA. Paper presented at the VII Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, Bari, Italy, 85–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Settanni, E., Tassielli, G., & Notarnicola, B. (2010a). Combining LCA of food products with economic tools. In U. Sonesson, J. Berlin & F. Ziegler (Eds.), Environmental assessment and management in the food industry, Woodhead.

    Google Scholar 

  • Settanni, E., Notarnicola, B., & Tasselli, G. (2010b, September). Application of a costing model consistent with LCA to the production of pasta in a small-sized firm. Paper presented at the VII International Conference on Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-Food Sector, Bari, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seuring, S., & Müller, M. (2008). From a literature review to a conceptual framework for sustainable supply chain management [Electronic version]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 16, 1699–1710.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shafie, S. M., Mahlia, T. M. I., Masjuki, H. H., & Rismanchi, B. (2012). Life cycle assessment (LCA) of electricity generation from rice husk in Malaysia. Energy Procedia, 14, 499–504.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spatari, S., Zhang, Y., & MacLean, H. L. (2005). Life Cycle Assessment of switchgrass- and corn stover-derived ethanol-fueled automobiles. Environmental Science & Technology, 39, 9750–9758.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suh, S., & Huppes, G. (2005). Methods for Life Cycle Inventory of a product. Journal of Cleaner Production, 13, 687–697.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Werf, H. M. G., Corson, M. S. C., & Wilfart, A. (2013). LCA Food 2012—Towards sustainable food systems. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 18, 1180–1183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Stappen, F., Delcour, A., Gheysens, S., Decruyenaere, V., Stilmant, D., Burny, P., Rabier, F., & Goffart, J-P. (2012, October). Assessment of existing and potential cereal food and non-food uses by combining E-LCA and S-LCA. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, Saint-Malò, France.

    Google Scholar 

  • Venkat, K. (2007). Analyzing and optimizing the environmental performance of supply chains. ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry T. Surya Technologies, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vidal, R., Martínez, P., & Garraín, D. (2009). Life cycle assessment of composite materials made of recycled thermoplastics combined with rice husks and cotton linters. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 14(1), 73–82.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, M., Xia, X., Zhang, Q., & Liu, J. (2010). Life cycle assessment of a rice production system in Taihu region, China. The International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 17(2), 157–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, A.G., Audsley, E., & Sandars, D. L. (2005). Final Report to Defra on Project IS0205: Determining the environmental burdens and resource use in the production of agricultural and horticultural Commodities. Department of Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (Defra), London. http://www2.defra.gov.uk/research/Project_Data/More.asp%3FI%3DIS0205†%26M%3DKWS%26V%3DERM.

  • Williams, A. G., Audsley, E., & Sandars, D. L. (2010). Environmental burdens of producing bread wheat, oilseed rape and potatoes in England and Wales using simulation and system modelling. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 15, 855–868.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., Zhang, B., Liu, Y., Xue, Y., & Binsheng, D. (2013). Carbon footprints of rice production in five typical rice districts in China. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 33(4), 227–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yan, X., & Boies, A. M. (2013). Quantifying the uncertainties in life cycle greenhouse gas emissions for UK wheat ethanol. Environmental Research Letters, 8, 015024.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yoo, S.H., Choi, J.Y., Lee, S.H., & Kim, T. (2013). Estimating water footprint of paddy rice in Korea. Paddy and Water Environment, 12(1), 43–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshikawa, N., Ikeda, T., Amano, K., & Shimada, K. (2010, September). Carbon footprint estimation and data sampling method: a case study of ecologically cultivated rice produced in Japan. Paper presented Agri-Food Sector, Bari, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoshikawa, N., Ikeda, T., Amano, K., & Fumoto, T. (2012, November). Life-cycle assessment of ecologically cultivated rice applying DNDC-Rice model. Paper presented at the 10th International Conference on EcoBalance ‘Challenges and Solutions for Sustainable Society’, Yokohama, Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yossapol, C., & Nadsataporn, H. (2008, November). Life Cycle Assessment of rice production in Thailand. Paper presented at the 6th Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector, Zurich, Switzerland.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Zelm, R., Larrey-Lassalle, P., & Roux, P. (2013). Bridging the gap between life cycle inventory and impact assessment for toxicological assessments of pesticides used in crop production. Chemosphere. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.11.037.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, M.-Y., Wang, F. -J., Chena, F., Malemela, M. P., & Zhang, H. -L. (2013). Comparison of three tillage systems in the wheat-maize system on carbon sequestration in the North China Plain. Journal of Cleaner Production, 54, 101–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Ionian Department of Law, Economics and Environment, University of Bari, Via Lago Maggiore angolo via Ancona, 74121, Taranto, Italy

    Pietro A. Renzulli

  2. Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Production, Landscape, Agroenergy, University of Milan, Via Celoria 2, 20133, Milan, Italy

    Jacopo Bacenetti & Alessandra Fusi

  3. Department of Science for Nature and Environmental Resources, University of Sassari, Via E. De Nicola, 1-07100, Sassari, Italy

    Graziella Benedetto

  4. SEAM Department, University of Messina, Piazza Pugliatti 1, 98122, Messina, Italy

    Giuseppe Ioppolo & Roberta Salomone

  5. QSA division, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet 424, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark

    Monia Niero

  6. Department of Management & Information Technology (DISTRA-MIT), University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084, Fisciano, Italy

    Maria Proto, Daniela Sica & Stefania Supino

Authors
  1. Pietro A. Renzulli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jacopo Bacenetti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Graziella Benedetto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Alessandra Fusi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Giuseppe Ioppolo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Monia Niero
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Maria Proto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Roberta Salomone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Daniela Sica
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Stefania Supino
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Pietro A. Renzulli .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Ionian Department of Law, Economics and Environment, University of Bari, Bari, Italy

    Bruno Notarnicola

  2. Department SEA, University of Messina, Messina, Italy

    Roberta Salomone

  3. Department of Economics, University of Chieti-Pescara, Pescara, Italy

    Luigia Petti

  4. Ionian Department of Law, Economics and Environment, University of Bari, Bari, Italy

    Pietro A. Renzulli

  5. Department of Agro-Environmental Science, University of Bari, Bari, Italy

    Rocco Roma

  6. Dept. Agricultural Sciences Forestry and Food, University of Turin, Grugliasco, Italy

    Alessandro K. Cerutti

Conclusions

Conclusions

Cereals and their derived products represent agricultural commodities of worldwide importance, with particular environmental hot spots originating from their widespread use and from their particular nature. The review illustrated in this chapter of the life cycle approaches related to cereals has highlighted that the agricultural phase is in most cases the one responsible for a larger share of the impacts of such product systems. Specifically, fertiliser and pesticide production and use and fuel-related emissions seem to be a common source of impact. Fuel use is responsible for a large contribution to the energy demand and acidification. Fertilisation and pesticide usage are also responsible for a large quota of the overall energy use during the life cycle of cereal-based products and hence are also responsible for the production of GHG. Such energy demand, together with ozone-depleting and acidifying emissions typical of intensive agricultural systems, are the reason for the lower impact of alternative organic types of cultivation that generally do not involve the use of pesticides and avoid the production of fertilisers, including nitrogen-based ones. However, even though organic agricultural approaches can potentially lower the overall impact of cropping systems, the lower fertiliser use and relative energy use in such systems can at times be counterbalanced by larger energy use for fieldwork and lower yields, which in turn lead to overall greater land occupation needed for the cereal production.

The growing number of CF studies highlights an emphasis on the study of the effects of cereal systems on climate change. In this context, rice differentiates itself from corn and wheat since there are many types of rice and production processes, all of which are responsible not only for the above-mentioned major contributions deriving from the production and use of fertilisers but also for the contribution of methanogenesis occurring in the waterlogged soil. Accordingly, there still seems to be no unique methodology for the reduction of the impacts of crop production, and the results from the studies vary substantially; however, the literature indicates that careful use of organic approaches and controlled water use and puddling methods need to be considered in order to reduce both WFs and CFs. What can certainly improve the overall sustainability of cereal production is the use of correct crop rotation by following the cereal cultivation, whenever possible, with legume or vegetable cultivation.

The literature review has also highlighted that the user behaviour when dealing with cereal-based products, for example in terms of transport distance and typology for the purchase of such products or the disposal of waste, can heavily influence the overall environmental sustainability of such product systems. There is thus a need to inform customers better and enhance their awareness of the possibilities of contributing to more sustainable cereal product systems with particular reference to the end of life of the product, which is often one of the least-studied LCA phases.

Overall, the implementation of LCA approaches, at an institutional level (both in developed and in developing countries), at the large corporate firm and SME levels, has increased the environmental consciousness of the people involved in the cereal sector, including users and customers, with an overall reduction of the burdens deriving from such product systems. There is in fact growing use of LCA in the cereal sector for the obtaining of environmental labels (e.g. EPDs). However, there is still a need for a better understanding of the difficulties that can be encountered when performing an LCA of a cereal product system in order to gain the best possible results, which can be used to improve the sustainability of the system. Some of these methodological aspects have been discussed in this chapter, such as the site and time dependency of pesticide diffusion modelling, the need for a deeper analysis and a standardised methodology for calculating the effects of land use on the quality of soil and biodiversity and the need for better quantification and qualification of water use. Among the reviewed studies, the system boundary and functional unit definition appear to be critical stages of the LCAs, in which it may be necessary to use one or more FUs, inevitably using allocation for environmental burden partitioning, and in which certain assumptions have to be made in order to progress with the overall assessment and overcome the lack of data and time or cost issues. The sources of information at the base of these assumptions are not always accurate; hence, it is important to explicate them carefully and evaluate the representativeness of the results and their variability in order to produce useful cereal LCA work that can help understand and improve the sustainability of such product systems.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Renzulli, P. et al. (2015). Life Cycle Assessment in the Cereal and Derived Products Sector. In: Notarnicola, B., Salomone, R., Petti, L., Renzulli, P., Roma, R., Cerutti, A. (eds) Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-food Sector. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-11940-3_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation