Ionizing X-rays

Abstract

The emission of light by a hot or heated object is called incandescence. In the nineteenth century, city, factory, and household lighting were dominated by the gas light industry. Efforts to produce better incandescent lighting, powered by electricity, started after the development of large batteries, known as voltaic piles, in 1800. Further interest in electric lighting was sparked when the electromagnetic generator became available after 1831. A practical incandescent lightbulb and electrical supply system were created by Thomas Edison during 1878–1880. Another incandescent light source was the Welsbach gas mantle made in Germany from 1891 to the present; see Chap. 4. Chemist Carl Freiherr Aurer von Welsbach produced a knitted cotton fabric (mantle) soaked in thorium oxide with trace amounts of a “rare earth” element like cerium. This Aurer Mantle was placed in a gas flame and could burn for 3000 h compared to 1000 h for an incandescent bulb. The Aurer Company claims that 75,000 of their gas streetlamps are still in use worldwide. A portable gas mantle lamp is available for sportsmen and for outdoor family recreational use.

 Supplemental Material: Partial List of Röntgen Awards and Honors [15, 16]

Awards	Honorary memberships
1896	1896
Prussian Order of the Crown, II Class	Prussian Acad. Sci., Berlin
Honorary Dr. of Medicine, University of Würzburg	Bavarian Acad. Sci., Munich
Royal Order of Merit of the Bavarian Crown	Naturforscher Gesell., Freiburg
Rumford Gold Medal of the Royal Society, London	Soc. Sci. Antonio, Mexico
Baumgaertner Prize of the Vienna Academy	Physical Soc., Frankfurt a. M.
1897	Chester Soc. Nat. Sci.
Elliot-Cresson Medal: Philadelphia Franklin Institute	Soc. Nat. Sci. Math., Cherbourg
Mattencei Medal, Rome	Wissenschaftliche Gesell.
Prize Lacaze; Acad. Sci., Paris	1897
Member American Philosophical Society of Phil., PA	Swiss Naturforscher Gesell.
1898	Physical-Med. Soc., Erlangen
Prize Otto Wahlbruch Stiftung, Hamburg	Röntgen Soc., London
1899	Soc. Med. St. Petersburg
Title of Royal Geheimrat from the Bavarian Govt.	Soc. Med. Constantinople
Diploma University of Zurich	Alumnae Federal Polytech. Sch. Zurich
1900	Reale Acad. Geographici, Florence
University of Munich; Professor and Dir.	1898
Grosskomturkreuz Royal Order of Merit: Bavaria	New York Med. Soc.
Order of Merit: St. Michail, I Class	Reale Acad. Lincei, Rome
Silver Medal of Prince Regent Lutipold	Reale Inst. Sci., Venice
Member of the Academy of Sciences, Munich	Soc. Holland., Harlem
Barnard Medal, Columbia University, New York	1899-Rotterdam, Stockholm
Member Maximillian Order Sciences with Decoration	1900-Hamburg
1901-Nobel Prize Physics, first	Munich Soc. of Physicians
1907-Member Royal Acad. Sci. Amsterdam	Munich Acad. of Sci.
1908-Title of Excellency, Bavaria	1901-Stockholm
1912-Russian diploma, Odessa	1902-Inst. De Coimbra
1915–70th birthday: honors	1903-Cambridge, Turin, Berlin x-Ray
1919–50th anniversary of Ph.D. honors	1904-Vienna Soc. of Physicians
1920–75th birthday and retirement honors	1905-London, Edinburgh
1921–1930: continued honors	1906–1921: continued memberships