Abstract
In regions such as Sumeria/Assyria/Babylonia, Egypt, Israel, India and China. large armies of slaves, fertile flood plains, and irrigation facilitated the shift from a hunter-gatherer society to pastoral life. Agricultural surpluses allowed the construction of quite large cities and the emergence of class structures, with a ruling class, government officials, soldiers, labourers, and slaves, each with their own health and fitness needs. Occasionally, the ruler was expected to demonstrate his physical prowess, but the elite pursued active sports more for pleasure than to enhance personal fitness. The number of sedentary workers steadily increased as cities grew in complexity; this, combined with the evolution of spectator events, feasting and sedentary board games brought obesity and poor physical condition to many in the upper echelons of society. The soldiers wore armour and carried heavy weapons; their physical fitness was maintained by a combination of military duties and sports participation. Common labourers and slaves carried out heavy occupational work for long hours each day, maintaining their fitness, provided that they were well fed. Passive transportation (on horseback and in chariots), and the harnessing of water power were early harbingers of the mechanization that would eventually reduce human toil. Illness was generally attributed to some offence against the gods and/or an imbalance among four or five poorly understood “body humours.” Physicians emerged from the priesthood with a repertoire of treatments that included surgery, herbal remedies, ritual exercises, acupuncture and magical incantations. A few lone voices advocated exercise for its health benefits, and even among this group, the suggested intensity of effort was usually quite low.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Adams F (1844) The seven books of Paulus Aegineta: translated from the Greek: with a commentary embracing a complete view of the knowledge possessed by the Greeks, Romans, and Arabians on all subjects connected with medicine and surgery. Sydenham Society, London, UK
Agarwal A (1989) Rise and fall of the imperial Guptas. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, India
Aitken EH (1907) Gazetteer of the Province of Sindh. The birth of civilization. Government of India, Karachi, India
Albright WF (1943) The Gezer calendar. Bull Am Sch Orient Res 92(1):16–26
Allam A, Thompson RC, Wann S et al (2009) Computed tomographic assessment of atherosclerosis in ancient Egyptian mummies. JAMA 302(19):2091–2094
Allan N (2001) The physician in ancient Israel. His status and function. Med Hist 45(3):377–394
Armstrong K (2001) Buddha. Penguin, New York, NY
Ashram VS (1979) Age of Bhārata War. Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, India
Avalos H (1995) Illness and health care in the ancient near East: the role of the temple in Greece, Mesopotamia, and Israel. Scholars Press, Atlanta, GA
Baas JH (1889) Outlines of the history of medicine and the medical profession. Krieger Publishing, Huntington, NY
Baker WJ (1988) Sports in the Western world. University of Illinois Press, Champaign, IL
Basham AL (2008) The wonder that was India: a survey of the history and culture of the Indian sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims. Scholarly Publishing Office, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
Beck RB, Black L, Krieger LS et al (1999) World history: patterns of interaction. McDougal Littell, Evanston, IL
Beckwith CL (2009) Empires of the Silk Road: a history of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the present. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
Benn C (2002) China’s golden age: everyday life in the Tang dynasty. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
Bettman OL (1956) A pictorial history of medicine. C.C. Thomas, Springfield, IL
Bhatia SL (1977) Medical science in ancient India. In: A history of medicine with special reference to the Orient. Office of the Medical Council of India, New Delhi, India, pp 14–33
Bhishnagratna KKL (1911) An English translation of the Sushruta Samhita. Author, Calcutta, India
Bloomfield M (1897) Hymns of the Atharveda. Sacred books of the East, vol 42. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK
Bonnefoy Y (1993) Asian mythologies. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL
Booth C (2005) The Hyskos period in Egypt. Shire Publications, Princes Risborough, UK
Boyce M (1979) The background. In: Boyce M (ed) Zoroastrians. Routledge & Kegan, London, UK, pp 1–16
Brain P (1986) Galen on blood-letting: a study of the origins, development, and validity of his opinions, with a translation of the three works. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY
Breasted JH (1906) Ancient records of Egypt; Historical documents from the earliest times to the Persian Conquest. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL
Breasted JH (1909) History of Egypt from the earliest time to the Persian conquest. C. Scribner’s Sons, New York, NY
Breasted JH (1930) The Edwin Smith surgical papyrus. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL
Briant P (2002) Cyrus to Alexander: a history of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN
Broughton G, Janis JE, Attinger CE (2006) A brief history of wound care. Plast Reconstr Surg 117(7 Suppl):6–11
Bruins HJ, van der Plicht J (1995) Tell es-Sultan (Jericho): radiocarbon results of short-lived cereal and multiyear charcoal samples from the end of the middle bronze age. Rasdiocarbon 37(2):213–220
Brunner CJ (1978) The middle Persian explanation of chess and invention of backgammon. J Anc Near East Soc, Columbia Univ 10(1):43–51
Bryan CP (1930) The Papyrus Ebers. Garden City Press, Letchworth, UK
Bujalikova M (2011) Rufus of Ephesus and his contribution to the development of anatomical nomenclature. Acta Med Hist Adriat 9(1):89–100
Calvert RN (2002) The history of massage: an illustrated history from around the world. Healing Arts Press, Rochester, VT
Chadwick R (1992) Calendars, Ziggurats, and the Stars. Can Soc Mesopot Stud Bull 24(1):7–24
Chang K-C (1980) Shang civilization. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT
Changhong R (2000) Rise and fall of the Qin dynasty. Asiapac Books PTE Ltd., Singapore
Chawdhury KR (1988) Man, malady and medicine: history of Indian medicine. Das Gupta & Co, Calcutta, India
Chia M (2005) Energy balance through the Tao: exercises for cultivating Yin energy. Destiny Books, Merrimac, MA
Chinese Kuoshu Institute (2003) Virtue, humility and wisdom through Chinese martial arts. http://www.kuoshu.co.uk/History - SJ.htm. Accessed 23 Nov 2011
Chinese Olympic Committee (2003) Military sports in ancient times. http://en.olympic.cn/sports_in_ancient_china/2003-11-16/11292.html. Accessed 15 July 2014
Chopra A, Doiphode VV (2002) Ayurvedic medicine. Core concept, therapeutic principles, and current relevance. Med Clin North Am 86(1):75–89
Ch’u T-T (1972) Han dynasty China: Volume 1: Han social structure. University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA
Clements J (2008) Confucius: a biography. Sutton Publishing, Stroud, UK
Cohen JS (2000) How does Jewish law work? A rabbi analyzes 119 more contemporary halachic questions. Jason Aronson, Northvale, NJ
Collins S (2010) Nirvana: concept, imagery, narrative. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Colson FH (1941) Philo, Vol. 9: Quod omnis probus liber sit. W. Heinemann, London, UK
Coppa A, Bondioli L, Cucina A et al (2006) Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population. Nature 440(7085):755–756
Cottrell L (1963) The lost Pharaohs. Grosset and Dunlap, New York, NY
Crown AD (1969) The knowledge of drugs in ancient Israel. Austr J Forensic Sci 1(4):30–48
Dadachanji FK (1941) Health; In philosophy of Zoroastrianism and comparative study of religions, vol I. The Times of India Press, Bombay, India, pp 801–807
Dalley S, Oleson JP (2003) Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the water screw: the context of invention in the ancient world. Technol Cult 44(1):1–26
Damm H (1970) The so-called sport activities of primitive people. A contribution to the genesis of sport. In: Lüschen G (ed) The crops-cultural analysis of sport and games. Stipes, Champaign, IL, pp 52–69
Darby WJ, Ghallounghul P, Grivatti L (1977) Food: the gift of Osiris. Academic Press, London, UK
Darmester J (1880) The Zend-Avesta. Part I. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK
David AR (2002) The pyramid builders of Ancient Egypt: a modern investigation of Pharaoh’s workforce. Routledge, Abingdon, UK
David AR, Kershaw A, Heagerty A (2010) Atherosclerosis and diet in ancient Egypt. Lancet 375(9716):718–719
Dawson WR (1928) The pig in ancient Egypt: a commentary on two passages of Herodotus. J R Asiat Soc GB North Irel 60(3):597–608
de Vaux R (1997) Ancient Israel: its life and institutions. Wm. B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI
Diem C (1938) Physical culture in ancient Egypt. Olympic Review, pp 21–26
Dryden J (1864) Plutarch, lives. The Modern Library, New York, NY
Dulbecco R (1997) Encyclopedia of human biology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA
Eberhard W (1967) A history of China. Plain Label Books, London, UK
Ebrey PB, Walthall A, Palais JB (2006) East Asia: a cultural, social, and political history. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA
Eisenberg D, Wright TL (1995) Encounters with Qi: exploring Chinese medicine. Norton, New York, NY
Elgood C (1934) Medicine in Persia. Hoeber, New York, NY
Elgood C (2010) Medical history of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Erman A (1894) Life in ancient Egypt. Macmillan and Co., London, UK
Estes JW (1993) The medical skills of Ancient Egypt. Science History Publications, Canton, MA
Filer J (1996) Disease. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX
Filliozat J (1964) The classical doctrine of Indian medicine. Its origins and Greek parallels. Translated from the original French by Chanana DR. Munshiram Publishing, New Delhi, India
Finkelstein I, Silberman NA (2001) The Bible unearthed: archaeology’s new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its sacred texts. Simon & Schuster, New York, NY
Finkelstein I, Mazar A, Schmidt BB (2007) The quest for the historical Israel: debating archaeology and the history of early Israel. Invited lectures delivered at the Sixth Biennial colloquium of the International Institute for Secular Humanistic Judaism, Detroit, October 2005. Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta, GA
Forrai J (2009) The beginnings of dental caries and its treatments. Rev Clin Pesqui Odontol Curitiba 5(2):187–192
Frawley D (2004) Yoga and Ayurveda. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, India
Furley DJ, Wilkie JS (1984) Galen on respiration and the arteries: an English translation and commentary of De usu respirationis. An in arteriis natura sanguis contineatur, De usu pulsuum, and De causis respirationis. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
Gabriel RA (2006) The ancient world. Soldiers’ lives through history. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT
Gabriel RA (2012) Man and wound in the ancient world: a history of military medicine from Sumer to the fall of Constantinople. Potomac Books, Washington, DC
Gardiner E (1990) Athletics in the ancient world. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
Garnsey P (1999) Food and society in classical antiquity. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY
Garvey M (2012) Emotions, desires, and physiological fire in Chinese medicine. Part Two: the minister fire. Aust J Acupunct Chin Med 7(1):24–30
Ghalioungui P (1973) Magic and medical science in ancient Egypt, 3rd edn. B.M. Israël, Amsterdam, Holland
Gibson M (1990) Nippur, 1990: Gula, Goddess of healing, and an Akkadian tomb. News and Notes #125. Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL
Gill J (1989) John Gill, exposition of the Old and New Testaments, reprinted. Baptist Standard Bearer, Paris, AR
Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V et al (2000) The origin of the domestic pig: independent domestication and subsequent introgression. Genetics 154(4):1785–1791
Gordon BL (1949) Medicine throughout antiquity. Davis, Philadelphia, PA
Green P (1989) Classical bearings: interpreting ancient history and culture. Thames & Hudson, London, UK
Green TA, Svinth JR (2011) Martial arts of the world: an encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, CA
Griffith RTH (1985) Hymns of the Atharvaveda, 2nd edn. Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, India
Gulczinsky J, Iżycka-Świeszewska E, Grzybiak M (2009) Short history of the autopsy. Part I. From prehistory to the middle of the 16th century. Pol J Pathol 60(3):109–114
Hackett JA (1998) There was no king in Israel: the era of the judges. In: Coogan MW (ed) The Oxford history of the biblical world. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp 132–164
Harris JE, Wente F (1980) An x-ray atlas of the royal mummies. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL
Haudricourt AG, Delmarre MJ (1956) L’homme et le charrue à travers le monde [Humans and the plough around the world]. Gallimard, Paris, France
Healy M (1993) Quadesh, 1300 BC: clash of the warrior kings. Osprey Publishing, Botley, Oxford, UK
Heeßel N (2000) Babylonisch-assyrische Diagnostik (Alter Orient und Altes Testament 43; Babylonian-Assyrian diagnosis; Ancient Orient and Old Testament 43). Ugart-Verlag, Münster, Germany
Henning SE (1999) Academia encounters the Chinese martial arts. China Rev Int 6(2):319–332
Hermon S (1975) The word Sakhok (play) in the Bible (the Old Testament). In: Simri U (ed) Play in physical education and sport. Wingate Institute, Natanya, Israel, pp 7–14
Heynick F (2002) Jews and medicine: an epic saga. KTAV Publishing House, Hoboken, NJ
Hickey TM, O’Connell M (2003) The Hearst medical papyrus. Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, CA
Hill D (1984) A history of engineering. Croom Helm, London, UK
Hongling L (1991) Verification of the fact that golf originated from Chuiwan. Aust Soc Sports Hist Bull 14(1):12–23
Horstmanshoff HFJ, Stol M, Tilburg C (2004) Magic and rationality in ancient Near-Eastern and Graeco-Roman medicine. Brill Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands
Howell ML (1971) Archaeological evidence of sports and games in ancient civilizations: interpretive comments. In: Proceedings of the 2nd world symposium on the history of sport and physical education, Banff, AL. University of Alberta, Edmonton, AL
Ivanhoe PJ, Bloom I (2009) Mencius. Columbia University Press, New York, NY
James TGH (2005) The British Museum concise introduction to ancient Egypt. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI
Jarrige J-F (1986) Excavations at Mehrgarh-Nausharo. Pak Archaeol 10(22):63–131
Jellinek A (1938) Bet-ha-Midrasch, 2nd edn. Bamberger and Wahrman, Jerusalem, Israel
Jones WHS (1947) The medical writings of Anonymus Londinensis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 23–147
Jones R, Riordan J (2002) Sport and physical education in China. Taylor and Francis, London, UK
Kaviratna AC, Sharma P (1997) Caraka Samhita, Vols. 1–5. Indian Medical Science Series No. 41, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, India
Keightley DN (1978) Sources of Shang history: the oracle-bone inscriptions of bronze age China. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA
Kenoyer JM (1997) Trade and technology of the Indus Valley: new insights from Harappa, Pakistan. World Archaeol 29(2):262–280
Kirkland R (2004) Taoism: the enduring tradition. Routledge, Abingdon, UK
Knipe D (1991) Hinduism. Harper, San Francisco, CA
Koch US (2014) The Āšipu- Healer and Diviner? http://www.academia.edu/591778/The_Ashipu_Healer_and_Diviner. Accessed 2 Jan 2014
Köcher F (1980) Die babylonische-assyrische Medizin in Texten und Undersuchungen [Babylonian-Assyrian medicine in text and research]. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, Germany
Kohn L (2008) Chinese healing exercises: the tradition of Daoyin. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, Hawaii
Kottek S (1983) The Essenes and medicine. Clio Med 18:81–93
Kramer SN, Maier JR (1989) Myths of Enki, the crafty god. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
Kranzberg M, Gies J (1975) By the sweat of thy brow: work in the western world. Putnam, New York, NY
Kulke H, Rothermund D (2004) History of India. Routledge, New York, NY
Kutambiah P (1962) The doctrine of tridosa; in Ancient Indian Medicine – orient. Longmans, Madras, India
Labat R (1951) Traité Akkadien de diagnostics et pronostics médicaux. 1. Transcription et traduction (Treatise on medical diagnosis and prognosis: transcript and translation). E.J. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands
Lanpo J, Huang W (1990) The story of Peking man: from archaeology to mystery (trans: Yin Zhiqi). Oxford University Press, New York, NY
Leake CD (1952) The old Egyptian medical papyri. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, KS
Le Camus E (1900) Les enfants de Nazareth (The children of Nazareth). A. Vromant, Brussels, Belgium
Lee LXH (2007) The Yue woman. In: Au CK, Childs-Johnson E, Cook CA (eds) Biographical dictionary of Chinese women, Antiquity through Sui: 1600 B.C.E.–618 C.E. M.R. Sharpe, Ammonk, NY
Li W, Frierman D (2006) Diseases of the kidney & bladder: diagnosis & treatment with Chinese medicine. Blue Poppy Press, Boulder, CO
Li J, Chen H, Stone HA (2013) Ice lubrication for moving heavy stones to the Forbidden City in 15th- and 16th-century China. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 110(50). Published online before print November 4, 2013. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1309319110
Lichtheim M (2006) Ancient Egyptian literature. Vol. III: The late period. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA
Lingling L (1993) Women’s polo in ancient China. China Sports 27(9):48–50
Lu G-D, Needham J (2002) Celestial lancets: a history and rationale of acupuncture and moxa. Routledge, London, UK
Luijendijk DH (2005) Kalarippayat: India’s ancient martial art. Paladin Press, Boulder, CO
Lyons AS, Perrucelli RJ (1987) Medicine: an illustrated history. Abradale Press, New York, NY
Maher M (2010) The ancient Egyptian Olympic movement towards peace. http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p415451_index.html. Accessed 16 Nov 2011
Manuelian PD (1998) Egypt: the world of the Pharaohs. Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Cologne, Germany
Marshall JH (1996) Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus civilization: being an official account of archaeological excavations at Mohenjo-Daro carried out by the Government of India between the years 1922 and 1927. Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, India
Matthews VH, Benjamin DC (2006) Old Testament parallels: laws and stories from the ancient Near East. Paulist Press, Mahwah, NJ
McIntosh J (2008) The ancient Indus Valley: new perspectives. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, CA
McNutt P (1999) Reconstructing the society of ancient Israel. Westminster John Knox Press, Louisville, KY
Mehta JM (2011) Divine message of God to mankind Vedãs. Pustak Mahal, New Delhi, India
Miller GD (2011) Marriage in the book of Tobit. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, Germany
Miller FP, Vandome AF, McBrewster J (2011) Seder Olam Rabbah. VDM Publishing, Saarbrücken, Germany
Mondal S (2013) Science of exercise. Ancient Indian origin. J Assoc Physicians India 61:560–562
Mookerji R (1989) The Gupta empire. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, India
Murnane WJ (1981) The Sed festival: a problem in historical method. Mitt des Dtsch Archaöl Inst 37:369–376
Murray MA (2000) Cereal production and processing; fruits, vegetables, pulses and condiments. In: Nicholson PT, Shaw I (eds) Ancient Egyptian materials and technology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 505–536, 609–655
Murray HJ (1913) A history of chess. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
Mutimer BTP (1970) Play forms of the ancient Egyptians. In: Edmonton, A. Howell ML (ed) Proceedings of the 1st Canadian symposium on the history of sport and physical education. Fitness & Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, pp 569–578
Nardo D (2004) Living in ancient Egypt. Greenhaven Press, San Diego, CA
Needham J (1986) Science and civilization in China. Caves Books Ltd., Taipei, Taiwan
Nemet-Najat KR (1998) Chapter 8: Recreation. In: Daily life in ancient Mesopotamia. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT
Oleson JP (2000) Water-lifting. Handbook of ancient water technology. In: Wikander O (ed) Technology and change in history. Brill Publishing, Leiden, Netherlands, pp 217–302
Olivelle P (1998) Upaniṣads. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
Olmstead ATE (1923) History of Assyria. C. Scribner’s Sons, New York, NY
Osgood CE, Meredith MM (1973) From yang and yin to and or but. Language 49:380–412
Osler W (1921) The evolution of modern medicine; A series of lectures delivered at Yale University on the Silliman foundation, in April, 1913. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT
Pal M (1991) The Tridosha theory. Anc Sci Life 10(3):144–155
Palmer D, Howell ML (1973) Sport and games in early civilization. In: Ziegler EF (ed) A history of sport and physical education to 1900 (selected topics). Stipes, Champaign, IL, pp 21–34
Parkins MD (2001) Pharmacological practices of ancient Egypt. In: Whitelaw WA (ed) Proceedings of the 10th annual history of medicine days. University of Calgary, Calgary, AL
Parkinson RB (1999) The tale of Sinuhe and other Egyptian poems, 1940–1640 BC. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
Pathak A, Verma NK, Kumud K (1995) Handicrafts in the Indus valley civilization. Janaki Prakashan, Patna, India
Patrick S, Lowth W, Arnald R et al (1822) A critical commentary and paraphrase on the Old and New Testament and the Apocrypha, vol 4. R. Priestley, London, UK
Perkins D (1999) Encyclopedia of China: the essential reference to China, its history and culture. Routledge, Abingdon, UK
Piccione A (1980) In search of the meaning of Senet. Archaeol 33(21):55–58
Pioneers of Physical Culture (2014) The history of body building. http://pioneersofphysicalculture.org/about-us/history/. Accessed 16 July 2014
Possehl GL (1982) Harappan civilization: a recent perspective. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
Possehl GL (2002) The Indus civilization: a contemporary perspective. AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek, CA
Potts DT (1997) Mesopotamian civilization: the material foundations. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY
Prioreschi P (1998) A history of medicine: Greek medicine. Horatius Press, Omaha, NB
Radha SS (2006) Hatha yoga: the hidden language, secrets and metaphors. Timeless Books, Kootenay, BC
Rajagopal K (1973) Early Indian physical education. In: Zeigler EF (ed) A history of sport and physical education to 1900 (selected topics). Stipes, Champaign, IL, pp 45–55
Rawlinson G (1942) The history of Herodotus. A new English version with notes. Book 2:47 Euterpe. Random House, New York, NY
Ray P, Gupta H, Roy M (1980) Physiology; in Sushruta Samhita (a scientific synopsis). Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, India, pp 26–32
Ren H (1993) History of sports in China. People’s Sports Press, Beijing, China
Rey R (1995) The history of pain. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
Rosner F (1986) Blood letting in Talmudic times. Bull NY Acad Med 62(9):935–946
Rosner F (1995) Medicine in the Bible and Talmud: selections from classical sources. Yeshiva University Press, Hoboken, NJ
Ross J (1880) The Manchu. F & R. Parlane, Paisley, Scotland
Ross A, Thomas S (2010) The health benefits of yoga and exercise: a review of comparison studies. J Altern Complement Med 16(1):3–12
Roy SB (1982) Mohenjodaro. Institute of Chronology, New Delhi, India
Ruffer MA (1910a) Studies in the palaeopathology of Egypt. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL
Ruffer MA (1910–1911) On arterial lesions found in Egyptian mummies. J Pathol Bacteriol 15:453–462
Ryan AJ (1974) The history of sports medicine. In: Ryan AJ, Allman FL (eds) Sports medicine. Academic, New York, NY
Salter MA (1971) Mortuary games of the eastern culture area. Can J Hist Sport 2:160–197
Samuel D (2000) Brewing and baking. In: Nicholson PT, Shaw I (eds) Ancient Egyptian materials and technology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 537–576
Saper RB, Phillips RS, Sehgal A et al (2008) Lead, mercury, and arsenic in US- and Indian-manufactured ayurvedic medicines sold via the internet. JAMA 300(8):915–923
Saraf S, Parihar RS (2006) Sushruta: the first plastic surgeon in 600 B.C. Int J Plast Surg 4(2)
Sasajima K (1971) Ancient Chinese sports and games brought into Japan in ancient times and their Japanization. Proceedings of 2nd world symposium on the history of sport and physical education, Banff, AL. University of Alberta, Edmonton, AL
Sasajima K (1973) Early Chinese physical education and sport. In: Zeigler EF (ed) A history of sport and physical education to 1900 (selected topics). Stipes, Champaign, IL
Sawyer RD, Sawyer M-CL (1994) Sun Tzu’s The Art of War. Barnes & Noble, New York, NY
Sayce AH (1908) The archaeology of the cuneiform inscriptions. Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, London, UK
Schäfer P (2003) The history of the Jews in the Greco-Roman world. Routledge/Psychology Press, London, UK
Schug GR, Gray K, Mushrif-Tripathy V et al (2012) A peaceful realm? Trauma and social differentiation at Harappa. Int J Paleopathol 2(2–3):136–147
Scurlock JA, Andersen BR (2005) Diagnoses in Assyrian and Babylonian medicine: ancient sources, translations and modern medical analyses. University of Illinois Press, Champaign, IL
Shaffer A (1974) Enlilbani and the ‘Dog House’ in Isin. J Cuneif Stud 26(4):251–255
Sharma RK, Dash VB (1977) Exercise, Good effects of exercise. Bad effects of exercise; in Agnivesa’s Caraka Samhita, vol I. Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, pp 151–152
Shattock SG (1908–1909) A report on the pathological condition of the aorta of King Menephtah, traditionally regarded as the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Proc R Soc Med 2(Path Sect):122–127
Shehata M (2004) The father of medicine: a historical reconsideration. Turk Klin J Med Ethics 12(3):171–176
Sherman DM (2002) Tending animals in the global village. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK
Shiloah A (1995) Jewish musical traditions. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, MI
Silva JME (2010) A medicina na Mesopotâmia antiga [Medicine in ancient Mesopotamia]. Acta Med Port 23:125–140
Simri U (1966) The religious and magical functions of ball games in various cultures. West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV
Simri U (1973) The ball games of antiquity. In: Zeigler EF (ed) A history of sport and physical education to 1900. Stipes, Champaign, IL, pp 93–99
Singh U (2008) A history of ancient and early Mediaeval India: from the stone age to the 12th century. Pearson Education, New Delhi, India
Sivin N (1993) Huang-ti nei-ching. In: Loewe M (ed) Early Chinese texts: a bibliographical guide. Institute for East Asian Studies, University of California, Los Angeles and Berkeley, CA
Skehan PW (1987) The wisdom of Ben Sira: a new translation with notes. Doubleday, New York, NY
Smith S (1975) Babylonian historical texts relating to the capture and downfall of Babylon. Georg Olms, Hildesheim, Germany
Smith WH (1982) Erasistratus’s dietetic medicine. Bull Hist Med 56(3):398–409
Speak M (1999) Sport and recreation in ancient China. In: Riordan J, Jones RE (eds) Sport and physical education in China. E & F. Spon, London, UK, pp 20–45
Spiegler W (2006) Sha’arei Refuah: gates of Jewish healing. Lulu Enterprises, Morrisville, NC
Spier DL (1970) The influence of warfare on recreational activities of the ancient Assyrians. Proceedings, Ist Canadian international symposium on the history of sport and physical education. Fitness & Health Canada, Ottawa, ON
Sreeram L (1885) The metaphysics of the Upanishads. Heeralal Dhole. Vicharsaga, Calcutta, India
Srivastava P (2008) Exploring children’s understanding of play and games. M.Sc. Thesis, Lady Irwin College, New Delhi, India
Stager LE (1998) Forging an identity: the emergence of Ancient Israel. In: Coogan MD (ed) The Oxford history of the biblical world. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp 90–131
Stol M (1993) Epilepsy in Babylonia. Brill Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands
Strassler RB, Purvis AL (2009) The landmark Herodotius: the histories. Anchor Books, New York, NY
Strouhal E (1989) Life in ancient Egypt. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK
Tannahill R (1968) The fine art of food. Folio Society, London, UK
Thapar R (2004) Early India: from the origins to AD 1300. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA
Tharsen JR (2013) Sport and the competitive spirit in ancient China. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL
Thompson RC (1923) Assyrian medical texts from the originals in the British Museum. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
Thompson TL (1992) Early history of the Israelite people. Brill Publishing, Leiden, Netherlands
Thompson WR (2004) Complexity, diminishing marginal returns and serial Mesopotamian fragmentation. J World Sys Res 10(3):613–652
Tipton CM (2008) Historical perspective: the antiquity of exercise, exercise physiology and the exercise prescription for health. In: Simopolous A (ed) Nutrition and fitness: cultural, genetic and metabolic aspects. Karger, Basel, Switzerland, pp 198–245
Touny AD, Wenig S (1969) History of sports in ancient Egypt (trans: Becker J). Edition Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
Underwood EA, Rhodes P (2008) History of medicine. In: Encyclopaedia Brittanica. Encyclopaedia Brittanica, Chicago, IL
Unschuld P (1985) Medicine in China: a History of ideas. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA
van de Mieroop M (2005) King Hammurabi of Babylon. Blackwell, Oxford, UK
Vayalil PK (2012) Date fruits (Phoenix dactylifera Linn): an emerging medicinal food. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 52(3):249–271
Vilnay Z (1969) Sport in ancient Israel. In: Simri U (ed) Proceedings 1st international seminar on the history of physical education and sport. Wingate Institute, Netanya, Israel
von Klein CH (1905) Medical features of the Papyrus Ebers. American Medical Association, Chicago, IL
von Staden H (1998) Herophilus: the art of medicine in early Alexandria. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Waley A, Allen JR (1996) The book of songs: the ancient Chinese classic of poetry. Grove, New York, NY
Walsh S, King E (2007) Pulse diagnosis: a clinical guide. Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA
Wang Z (1982) Han civilization (trans: Chang CT and Collaborators). Yale University Press, New Haven, CT
Wapnish P, Hesse B (1993) Pampered pooches or plain pariahs? The Ashkelon dog burials. Biblic Archaeol 56(2):55–80
Wilhelm H (1932) Gu Ting lin, der Ethiker. L.C. Wittich’sche Hofbuchdruckerei, Darmstadt, Germany
Wilson HH (1977a) Fifth Ashtaka to Sixth Ashtaka-First Adhyata. In: Cowell EB (ed) Rig-Veda Sanhita. Cosmos Publications, New Delhi, India
Wilson HH (1977b) First Ashtaka to Seventh Adhyata. In: Cowell EB (ed) Rig-Veda Sanhita. Cosmos Publications, New Delhi, India
Wilson JA (2013) The culture of ancient Egypt. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL
Witzig R (2006) The global art of soccer. Cusiboy Publishing, New Orleans, LA
Wood JA (1998) Perspectives on war in the Bible. Mercer University Press, Macon, GA
Woodward RD (2008) The ancient languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Wuest DA, Bucher CA (1995) Foundations of physical education and sport. Mosby, St. Louis, MO
Yamada S (2000) The construction of the Assyrian empire: a historical study of the inscriptions of Shalmanes III relating to his campaigns in the west. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands
Yang L, An D (2005) Handbook of Chinese mythology. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, CA
Zhu R, An Z, Pott R et al (2003) Magnetostratigraphic dating of early humans of in China. Earth Sci Rev 61(3–4):191–361
Zhuo D, Shephard RJ, Plyley MJ et al (1984) Cardio-respiratory and metabolic responses during Tai Chi Chuan exercise. Can J Appl Sport Sci 9(1):7–10
Ziegler E (1972) A brief chronicle of sport and physical activity for women. In: Proceedings of the 2nd Canadian symposium on the history of sport and physical education, Windsor, ON. Sport Canada, Ottawa, ON
Zink AR, Spigelman M, Schraut B et al (2006) Leishmaniasis in ancient Egypt and Upper Nubia. Emerg Infect Dis 12(10):1616–1617
Zysk KG (1998) Medicine in the Veda: religious healing in the Veda; with translations and annotations of medical hymns from the Ṛigveda and the Atharvaveda and renderings from the corresponding ritual texts. Motilal Banarsidass Publications, Delhi, India
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Shephard, R.J. (2015). Examples of Early City Life from Ancient Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, Israel, India and China: Health as a Gift of the Gods. In: An Illustrated History of Health and Fitness, from Pre-History to our Post-Modern World. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, vol 39. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-11671-6_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-11671-6_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-11670-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-11671-6
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawHistory (R0)